We frequently use the word energy. In the late nineteenth century, science endorsed this concept and gave it a more precise meaning. Many properties of matter can be used to define different kinds of energy that can transform into each other and transfer from some bodies to others.

Kinetic and Potential Energy

An object in motion can collide with another and produce changes. This is known as kinetic energy and can be expressed mathematically as: E_c = 1/2mv². An object located at a certain height may fall, start moving, and push another. This is gravitational potential energy, and we can write it as: E_p = mgh.

Energy Conservation

Energy is conserved in any transformation. If an object falls from a height, it loses potential energy, but that energy... Continue reading "Understanding Energy: Forms, Conservation, and Sources" »

Environmental Impact Assessment

Description of Actions and Their Impacts

The description of actions and their potential environmental impacts will include:

1. Location: Clearly define the geographical location of the proposed action.
2. Environmental Viewpoint: Describe the action from an environmental perspective, considering its potential interactions with the surrounding environment.
3. Relationship of Actions: Outline the relationship between all actions involved, specifically those capable of producing an environmental impact.
4. Materials and Resources: Describe the materials used, earthworks to be undertaken, land occupation, and any other natural resources whose removal is deemed necessary for project execution.
5. Waste and Emissions: Describe the type,

Ecosystem Load Limits and Human Impact

An ecosystem has a load limit, which is the maximum number of individuals it can sustain regularly. Each species tends to reproduce and increase its population until environmental resources reach a point where they cannot support further growth. At this point, the population stabilizes, reaching the load limit for that species. Humanity's advanced technology and increased consumption of natural resources cause environmental changes that affect the global biosphere. While technology can alter local conditions to favor human needs, the biosphere remains subject to its limits.

Loss of Biodiversity

Causes: Degradation of ecosystems and alterations that disrupt ecological equilibrium. Consequences: Species extinction... Continue reading "Ecosystem Load Limits, Biodiversity Loss, and Sustainable Development" »

Orogen: geological structures originally larger d is due to internal heat molded by external agents.

Meander: Curves in the path of a river where erosion occurs on the outside and sedimentation on the inside.

Dolina: Subsidence in the ground caused by the dissolution in the subsurface.

Loess: Extensive clay deposits transpote wind up thousands of miles

Morrenas: are deposits of sediment is called till, which is transported by glaciers

Domain Mediterranean: are temperate climates are dry and rainfall in spring and autumn floods. Streams and wadis are dry all year round except when it rains. The sediment-laden water flows for this reason the presence of alluvial fans in the valley bottom end their tour the streams and ravines. Vegetation is... Continue reading "Key Geological Terms and Weathering Factors" »

Study Methods of Earth's Interior

Several methods are used to study the Earth's interior:

• Probes and Mines: Direct observation is limited by depth (radius ~6371 km, probes go as deep as 13km).
• Study of Rocks: Natural phenomena like erosion and volcanic eruptions expose deeper rocks.
• Meteorites: Provide information about the primordial materials of the solar system, including Earth.
• Seismic Methods: The most effective method. Analysis of seismic waves from earthquakes that travel through the Earth's interior, providing data via seismographs.

Inner Layers of the Earth

The Earth's internal layers are distributed in order of increasing density, separated by seismic discontinuities.

Compositional Layers

• Crust and Mantle: Composed of rocks, with the less

Earth's Structure and Landforms

The Lithosphere

Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago. Its internal structure consists of:

• The Core: The center of Earth.
• The Mantle: Surrounds the core.
• The Crust: A thin layer of solid rocks.

The external structure includes:

• The Lithosphere: Composed of the crust and the upper part of the mantle.
• The Hydrosphere: All the water on Earth.
• The Atmosphere: The gaseous layer surrounding Earth.

Continents

Continents are large expanses of dry land surrounded by oceans and seas, covering 29% of Earth's surface. The majority are located in the Northern Hemisphere:

• Asia
• America
• Africa
• Antarctica
• Europe
• Oceania

Islands

Islands are smaller masses of land surrounded by water, often located near the coast of continents. Some islands are grouped... Continue reading "Earth's Structure, Landforms, and Climate Zones" »

Transportation

The eroded materials produce waste that can be classified into three types: ions, small particles, and clasts or fragments of different sizes. Depending on their size, detrital or clastic sediments are classified as gravel or ridges, coarse and fine sand, silt, and clay. The sediments are transported to lower areas by conveyor agents. The most important agent is water, followed by wind and glaciers.

In some cases, such as with particles dissolved in water, all transported materials are alike. However, in most cases, the lighter particles reach farther than the heavier ones, which are usually larger. This is known as selective transport, resulting in a selection of materials by size. Transport occurs in three basic ways: in solution,... Continue reading "Sediment Transport and Deposition Processes" »

Continuation Vertical Dykes

Phases in the construction of dams with floating caissons:

Construction, launching, towing, positioning, anchoring, filling, building superstructure.

Factors to Consider in Building:

1. Previous studies
2. Quarry selection
3. Execution control

Previous Studies:

• Geological studies
• Climate studies
• Bathymetric studies
• Organization and valuation
• Execution

Works for Berthing and Mooring:

That perform the following functions: Contact land-sea, surface crossing of goods, creating a terminal area of transportation systems and storage area of goods.

Types:

Dock: A structure with two vertical planes where vessels are attached to a horizontal plane through which the manipulation of goods is done.

Pontoons and platforms: Areas or pathways through which... Continue reading "Dam Construction & Port Infrastructure: Phases, Factors & Types" »

Evaporator: The Cooling Component

The evaporator is the facility that produces the cooling effect. It's a heat exchanger where heat from the chamber transfers to the refrigerant, causing it to boil. The material must be a good heat conductor for efficient heat transfer. It doesn't necessarily have to be installed inside the enclosure being cooled.

Types of Evaporators

Flooded Evaporator

• The refrigerant is primarily in a liquid state.
• High-performance due to constant temperature difference between fluid and cooling medium.
• Typically uses float level regulators for expansion.

Finned Tube Evaporator

• Smaller size achieved due to increased surface area from fins.
• Fins come in various shapes (circular, square, etc.).
• Attached to the tube mechanically.
• Air circuits

Wood Properties and Characteristics

Physical Properties of Wood

• Anisotropy: Wood exhibits different physical and mechanical properties depending on the direction relative to the grain.
  • Axial: Parallel to the tree's growth.
  • Radial: Perpendicular to the axis.
  • Tangential: Perpendicular to the other two.
• Structure: Conifers typically have a homogeneous structure.
• Density: Mass at 0% moisture is termed anhydrous basis; mass at 12% moisture is termed normal mass.
• Other properties include color, brightness, texture, toxicity, and hygroscopicity.
• When wood has a moisture content higher than its environment, it loses water, leading to shrinkage and potential losses.

Mechanical Properties of Wood

• Compressive Strength: Highest when force is applied parallel to the