Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geology

Tsunami Causes and Impacts

Earthquakes are the primary cause of tsunamis. To a lesser extent, volcanic eruptions can also trigger these devastating waves. Tsunamis are generated when a seabed earthquake causes an abrupt vertical movement of the ocean floor, displacing a massive volume of water. The size of the tsunami waves is directly related to the magnitude of the earthquake or volcanic eruption.

Major Tsunami Risk Areas

1. Indonesia
2. Santorini (Greece)
3. Japan

Five Worst Tsunamis in History

1. Indonesia, 2004: 230,000 fatalities, extensive infrastructure damage, and a shift in the Earth's rotational axis.
2. Sri Lanka, 2004: Significant casualties and economic losses due to the same tsunami as Indonesia.
3. India, 2004: 9,000 dead, 100 missing, and long-term displacement

Soil Dynamics: Composition, Properties, and Influencing Factors

Soil Composition

Soil is a dynamic system influenced by various factors, including temperature, water, plants, wind, and animals. Its composition typically consists of:

• Water: Approximately 25%
• Air: Approximately 25%
• Minerals: 45-50%
• Organic Matter: 0.5-5%

Soil Profile

A soil profile represents the different horizons observed in a horizontal section of soil.

• Eluvial Horizon: Materials are transported from horizon A to horizon B.
• Illuvial Horizon: Horizon B accumulates materials received from the eluvial horizon.

Soil Texture

Soil texture refers to the characteristics of soil that depend on particle size. It is determined by the proportions of different-sized particles.

Soil Structure

Soil structure... Continue reading "Soil Dynamics: Composition, Properties, and Factors" »

Theme 6: The Art of Umayyad Al-Andalus (III): Sculpture and Luxuries

Ivories

We found rooms with patios and a pool in the center, next to the mosque. We do not know whether they were designed for ablutions or were homes for people guarding the mosque.

The Caliphate carvers were mainly located in Madinat al-Zahara. In the tenth century, the rulers chose a lifestyle of opulent luxury, pretending to emulate the eastern Abbasid court through luxury goods. Cordoba became a focus of production and consumption of enormous quantities of these goods. The pieces are uniform in their artistry because they are all carved. The technique comes from Byzantium but disappeared after the Taifa kingdoms. In the twelfth century, the monk Theophilus wrote about these... Continue reading "Umayyad Al-Andalus Art: Ivory Carvings of Madinat Al-Zahara" »

7. The Formation of Cordillera. The Orogen: Orogens are mountain ranges, their origin linked to subduction zones and plate movements. We can distinguish four types of orogens: island arcs, thermal orogens, collision orogenic, and intraplate orogens.

8. Tectonics. Deformations of the Rocks: Forces produce three types of rock deformation:

• Elastic deformation: A reversible deformation. Rocks deform from sudden shocks but recover their original form. Seismic waves cause this type of deformation.
• Plastic deformation: The folding of rocks, irreversible, usually occurring under intense compression over millions of years.
• Brittle deformation: The rupture of rocks. It happens when they cannot absorb comprehensive or extensional stress with elastic or plastic

Greenhouse Gases and Earth's Climate

Greenhouse gases allow transparent solar radiation to pass through, but they are opaque to infrared radiation emitted by our planet.

The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect raises the temperature of the atmosphere near the Earth's surface. This is due to the difficulty of heat dissipation, caused by the presence of carbon oxides from industrial combustion. Is it harmful to life on Earth?

Origin of the Wind

Winds are caused by the Earth's rotation and differences in solar radiation, mainly longwave radiation, which is absorbed indirectly through the atmosphere.

Earth's Surface and Water

The presence of an atmosphere with greenhouse gases prevents the freezing of the hydrosphere.

Dynamic System: Atmosphere and

Kaufmann House, Bear Run, Pennsylvania

Author: Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959)

Building Name: Kaufmann House (Fallingwater)

Background: 1935-1937

Location: Bear Run, Pennsylvania, USA

Style: Organic

Architectural Details and Construction

• Basic Construction Materials: Concrete, natural stone, glass, and aluminum
• Construction System: Utilizes industrial materials

Nestled in a lush valley, Fallingwater is dramatically positioned over a stream and waterfall. It seamlessly blends with its surroundings, forming a unified whole with nature. This iconic structure is a prime example of organic architecture.

Wright integrated the existing rocks in situ, using them as the natural foundation for the residence. Stone walls and concrete columns provide structural support.... Continue reading "Fallingwater: Frank Lloyd Wright's Organic Masterpiece" »

A natural hazard is the probability that a small or large population in an area suffers damage or a catastrophe as a result of natural processes.

Factors:

• Hazard Probability: Probability of occurrence in a geographical area at a determined time. Depends on geographical areas of distributions of certain natural phenomena.
• Geographic Area Affected: Recurrence interval or return period.
• Degree of Danger: Characteristics of the phenomenon and intensity of interference.
• Vulnerability: Total human and material assets exposed to risk factors, such as population density and the economic value of assets exposed.
• Harm: The percentage of human life or property exposed that can be affected by a natural phenomenon.

Factors Influencing Harm:

• Existence of prevention

Stars: Celestial Powerhouses

Stars are celestial bodies formed from large amounts of hydrogen and helium atoms. Internal nuclear reactions cause the emission of a large amount of energy. Stars reach very high temperatures and produce fusion reactions that release energy. A fusion reaction involves two hydrogen atoms and one helium atom.

Types of Stars

• Blue-white
• Yellow
• Orange
• Red

Stars are formed from nebulae. They broadcast particles via the Doppler effect. Light and sound propagate as waves. If the issuing body moves, the waves arrive at the receptor more compressed or more elongated as they move away or closer.

Galaxies: Islands of Stars

Galaxies are huge groups of stars, gas, and dust. They have different shapes and sizes, and the number of stars... Continue reading "Stars, Galaxies, and Celestial Objects: A Deep Dive" »

Ecological Footprint and its Impact

The impact of a species or population on the environment depends on the number of individuals it is composed of and the environmental impact of each individual. The ecological footprint is an indicator that measures the soil surface in hectares needed to produce resources consumed by a citizen or a population, as well as to absorb and detoxify the waste generated. These areas are located where they are needed.

The average ecological footprint is calculated by dividing the existing productive land on Earth by 6 billion. The average consumption per inhabitant per year is 2.8 hectares. Three consequences we can extract are:

• Slow population growth
• Cannot be extended to all
• Reducing consumption

Renewable Energy Sources

Solar

Oil: Composition

Oil molecules are primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen. Major hydrocarbon deposits are natural. These oil and gas fuels are mixtures of various types of oil.

Formation and Location of Hydrocarbon Deposits

Oil and natural gas form from the decomposed remains of marine organisms accumulated in seafloor sediments. Three conditions are needed:

• Source Rock: A fine-grained sedimentary rock where organic matter decomposes.
• Reservoir Rock: A porous rock where oil accumulates after migration.
• Trap: An impermeable rock that prevents oil from escaping to the surface.

The source rock requires rapid burial of marine organisms to prevent decomposition. Conversion starts at temperatures between 40°C and 60°C when sediments are buried 1-2... Continue reading "Hydrocarbon Deposits: Formation, Exploitation, and Environmental Impact" »