Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Key Geological Concepts

Stratigraphic Column

A stratigraphic column represents vertical information about the soil in a specific area. It details the materials that form the strata, their thickness, age, and other relevant characteristics.

Isotopes

Isotopes are different forms of the same element that have varying numbers of neutrons in their nucleus. They are differentiated by their mass number, which is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus (e.g., ¹²C, ¹³C, and ¹⁴C).

Stratigraphic Gap

A stratigraphic gap occurs when sediment deposition is absent between two adjacent layers in one location, while deposition occurred at the same time in another location.

Half-Life

Half-life is the time required for half of the nuclei in an initial sample of... Continue reading "Geological Concepts: Stratigraphy, Isotopes, and Uniformitarianism" »

Earth's Composition: Rocks and Minerals

Many common minerals, such as calcite, are found within rocks, which originate from various geological processes. The Earth's crust is primarily composed of three main types of rocks:

• Igneous Rocks: Formed when magma cools and solidifies.
  • Extrusive: Expelled by volcanoes onto the Earth's surface.
  • Intrusive: Do not reach the Earth's surface, solidifying underground.
• Metamorphic Rocks: Formed deep within the Earth's surface under high pressure and temperatures.
• Sedimentary Rocks: Formed through a process involving:
  1. Erosion
  2. Sediment Transport
  3. Deposition
  4. Compaction

Common minerals found in various rock types include kyanite, staurolite, sillimanite, quartz, turquoise, and garnets. Examples of sedimentary rocks include... Continue reading "Earth's Dynamic Processes: Rocks, Volcanoes, and Geological Eras" »

Refractor and Reflector Telescopes

Refractor (lens) - Galileo 1609
Reflectors (mirrors) - Newton 1670 - Cassagrain 1671
Reflectors (mirrors and lenses) - Schmidt 1930

Galileo's Contributions

Lunar surface phases of Venus, an aspect of Mars, 4 major satellites of Jupiter, solar rotation, stellar appearance of the Milky Way, an aspect of Saturn.

Aberration / Image Deficiencies

1) Spherical: Blurry images. It removes focus from the image.
2) Chromatic (color): Images with distinct edges. It is improved by adding a correcting lens.

Telescope Properties

A - Magnification: Number of times the image is enlarged as seen with the naked eye.
P - Resolving power: The ability of a telescope to distinguish or separate two spaced light sources.
d is the diameter... Continue reading "Telescopes, Astronomy, and Stellar Evolution" »

Thematic Maps

• General Information: Identify the type of source (e.g., choropleth, isoline, flow map).
• Geographic Phenomenon: Describe the geographic phenomenon represented (e.g., relief, population density). Refer to the map title and legend.
• Area and Date: Specify the geographic area and date the map refers to.
• Originator: Identify the map's originator.
• Commentary: Provide a geographic definition of the phenomenon represented.
• Location and Distribution: Describe the characteristics of its location or distribution, differentiating between areas.
• Causes and Consequences: Discuss causes and consequences, compare with other countries, and consider expected future trends.

Topographic Maps

• Source Identification: Identify the type of source: basic cartography.

The Ebro and Guadalquivir River Depressions

The Ebro Depression

The Ebro Depression is wedged between the foothills of the Pyrenees, the Iberian System, and the Catalan Coastal Range. It has a length of 380 km and a maximum width of 150 km. The Ebro River runs through this depression. The river and its tributaries form a communication network, where cities and irrigated areas are located. The Ebro flows through a passage between the Catalan Coastal Range that leads to the Mediterranean, where it forms a very extensive delta.

The Guadalquivir Depression

The Guadalquivir Depression is bordered by the Sierra Morena and the rugged Cordillera mountain ranges. This large, flat, triangular-shaped depression is about 330 km long and 200 km wide at the... Continue reading "Spain's Coastal and River Depression Relief" »

This document outlines various types of cement, detailing their composition, properties, and specific applications. Understanding these distinctions is crucial for selecting the appropriate cement for diverse construction needs.

BL: White Cement

BL White Cement is produced through a collection process involving special low-clinker content, iron, and specific additions, followed by milling. The additions used in its production do not alter its whiteness indices.

BC: Cement with Low Heat of Hydration

BC Cement is characterized by its low heat of hydration. Its production involves a special clinker (obtained with moderate contents of AC and SC3 and moderate fineness of grind), along with other major and minor components. This is followed by additions... Continue reading "Understanding Key Cement Varieties and Their Properties" »

Essential Economic and Tourism Definitions

Understanding specialized terminology is crucial for analyzing regional economies and the global tourism sector. Below are definitions of key concepts relevant to international trade, regional development, and hospitality management.

Balance of Payments Definition

The Balance of Payments (BOP) is an accounting document that records all economic transactions between a country and the rest of the world during a specific period. Example: The balance of payments of Spain.

Balearization: Economic Model and Coastal Impact

Balearization refers to the characteristics and organization of a regional economic model (often associated with the Balearic Islands) characterized by structural imbalance and unsustainable... Continue reading "Key Economic and Tourism Terminology Defined" »

Risk Assessment Fundamentals

The risk of an event (R) is calculated by multiplying the hazard (P) by the exposure (E) and vulnerability (V), expressed in per unit. The formula is: R = PEV.

Hazard

This is the probability of occurrence of a potentially damaging event in a specific region and at a determined point. Various factors influence hazard, such as the geographic distribution of the event, the surface area, or the return time. The different degrees of risk of an event in a given area are represented on maps called hazard maps.

Exposure

Exposure refers to the total number of people (social exposure), or the total amount of assets (economic exposure), or areas of high ecological value, which can be affected by an event. Similarly, maps are developed... Continue reading "Risk Management & Environmental Impact Analysis" »

The Isabel II System Crisis (1856-1868)

The last stage was dominated by the return of the Moderate Party to power and its alternation with the Liberal Union. The Moderate Party had gained international prestige with colonial pretensions. Internally, the action of the government was very authoritarian, acting outside of the courts and exercising strong repression against political groups. Opposition to the regime was growing, and new political groups emerged, such as the Democrats, who defended universal suffrage, and the Republicans, who advocated the abolition of the monarchy.

The Revolution of 1868

The political and economic crisis triggered the first revolution against the monarchy. The Unionists, Progressives, and Democrats joined forces to... Continue reading "Spain's Political Turmoil: 1856-1898" »

Geological Features and Processes

Lithosphere

The Lithosphere is the solid surface layer of the Earth. It has an average thickness of 100 km and is formed by the crust and the solid upper mantle, which rests upon the asthenosphere.

Convection Currents

Convection currents are movements within the Earth's mantle, driven by heat, that contribute to plate tectonics.

Volcano

Volcanoes are conical structures formed around openings in the Earth's crust by rising magma.

Earthquake

Earthquakes are sudden movements of the ground. They occur when the advance of a tectonic plate or a segment of a plate is impeded by friction with another plate or block, causing a sudden release of energy.

Fold

Folds are undulations that form in rock layers exhibiting ductile behavior... Continue reading "Earth's Dynamic Geology: Plates, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes" »