Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Internal Structure of the Earth

• Continental Crust
• Mohorovicic Discontinuity
• Upper Mantle
• Transition Zone
• Lower Mantle
• Outer Core
• Inner Core

Soil Layers and Composition

• Core: Nickel and Iron
• Mesosphere: Silicon, Iron, and Magnesium
• Crust: Silicon and Magnesium

Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Formed from melted minerals, typically found in the Earth's core. They have an inlaid and laminated glass appearance. Examples include granite and sharpening stone.

Sedimentary Rocks

Formed at the bottom of lakes and oceans. They appear as a mass of different substances in layers. An example is gypsum.

Metamorphic Rocks

Formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks due to changes in temperature and humidity. They appear as attached blades that separate easily. Examples include slate and marble.... Continue reading "Earth's Internal Structure, Rocks, and Soil Composition" »

Elevation and Relief

Elevation: Gradient of a point on the Earth's surface relative to sea level.

Close witnesses are residual reliefs formed by harder rocks such as limestone.

Countryside and Scale

Countryside: Gently rolling lowlands crisscrossed by rivers.

Scale: The average ratio between the map's length and the corresponding length in reality.

Geological Structures

Faults: A terrestrial crust rupture with fractured block separation.

Latitude and Longitude

Latitude: The angular distance from any point of land to the Equator.

Longitude: The angular distance from any point on Earth to the 0° meridian.

Plains and Meridians

Plain: A plain high above sea level.

Meridians: Semi-circles ranging from pole to pole. The most important is Greenwich.

Solids and

Geosphere

Distinct layers form the Earth, characterized by their physical and chemical properties:

• Nucleus (Core)

  The inner zone, characterized by high temperature and density due to heat energy. It occupies 17% of the Earth's volume.

• Mantle

  Approximately 2900 miles thick, occupying 82% of the Earth's volume. It has a lower density than the core and contains the asthenosphere, which drives convection currents.

• Lithosphere and Crust

  The outermost, cold, and least dense layer, forming the oceanic and continental crusts. Rocks are its main constituents.

Lithosphere and Relief Changes

Two types of processes shape the Earth's relief:

• Internal Processes

  Triggered by energy from the planet's interior.

• External Processes

  Modify the landscape and shape land relief.

1. The Greenhouse Effect

Causes

• Burning of fossil fuels
• Deforestation, hindering CO2 absorption by plants
• Gas emissions from industries and vehicles

Consequences

• Potential global temperature increase of 1.5 to 4.5°C
• Significant impact on regional climates
• Loss of plant and animal life
• Disruption of agriculture and increased food insecurity
• Exacerbated water scarcity and disease
• Melting of glaciers and polar ice caps

Prevention

• Transitioning to alternative energy sources

2. Ozone Depletion

Causes

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Consequences

• Increased UV radiation leading to skin cancer, vision problems, and weakened immune systems

Prevention

• Banning CFCs (which has shown positive results)

3. Acid Rain

Causes

• Industrial emissions

Consequences

• Damage to vegetation
• Acidification

Watersheds

a) The Watershed: This is the territory whose waters are discharged into a main river and its tributaries.

Features:

• They are separated by watersheds formed by the tops of the mountains that delimit them.
• Peninsular watersheds (North, Minho, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, Pyrenees, Ebro, South, Jucar, and Segura).
• In the basin, the rivers circulate, forming a channel or a network from the tributaries and the main river.

Watershed Management

Joint catchments discharging into the sea itself. The cause is the inclination of the plateau to the west from the Iberian system.

• Rivers from the Cantabrian side: They are short because they are born in mountains near the coast. They are erosive, and there is a significant drop from their source

Forces and Their Deforming Effects

A force can produce a deformation in a body. Experience shows that the distorting effect of a force depends on its intensity and the area on which it acts.

Understanding Fluids and Their Properties

Effects of Forces on Fluids

Substances called fluids are characterized by their ability to flow, even passing through small orifices. They do not have a definite form but conform to that of the container they occupy. Both liquids and gases are classified as fluids. A key distinction is that liquids are generally difficult to compress, while gases are highly compressible.

Principles of Pressure in Fluids

Pascal's Principle

Pascal's Principle states that the pressure exerted on any point of a confined incompressible fluid... Continue reading "Physics of Fluids and Pressure: Key Concepts" »

Building Enclosure Systems

Opening Configurations

180-Degree Opening Enclosure

• Possibility of opening 180 degrees for enhanced sun and water protection.
• Space for exterior sun protection placement.
• Requires continuous thermal insulation.
• Carpentry and pre-frame protected from water in the chamber must address lintel, jamb, and windowsill solutions for the exterior.

Limited Opening Enclosure (Medium)

• Does not open 180 degrees, offering less protection and less space.
• Features perfect insulation continuity.
• Carpentry and pre-frame require protection from water in the chamber, addressing lintel, jamb, and interior solutions, along with exterior ledges.

Interior-Focused Enclosure

• Does not open 180 degrees.
• Provides minimal sun and water protection, necessitating

Energy Sources and Raw Materials

Alternative Energy Sources

Advantages: Inexhaustible, clean, and much cleaner than traditional sources. However, the technology is often poorly developed and therefore more expensive.

• Solar energy: Problems include daily and annual irregularity and difficult storage.
• Wind energy: The main problem is the irregularity of the wind.
• Biomass energy: A key issue is CO2 emissions.
• Tidal power: Problems include environmental changes and high cost.
• Geothermal energy: Highly localized in areas with volcanic activity.
• Nuclear fusion energy: Requires very high temperatures, and the onset and control of the nuclear reaction are still unresolved.

Raw Materials

Raw materials are natural resources, either organic or mineral.

They are... Continue reading "Energy Sources and Raw Materials: A Comprehensive Analysis" »

Biomass Energy

Biomass energy is stored in living members of an ecosystem. It is organic matter produced by plants and other photosynthetic organisms.

Fossil Fuels Explained

Fossil fuels are geologic deposits of organic materials. These buried fuels are formed by the decomposition of ancient organisms over millions of years.

Wind Power Generation

Wind power is energy produced by a system of rotating blades (turbines) that harness the wind's kinetic energy.

Petroleum: Earth's Liquid Gold

Petroleum is a heterogeneous mixture of organic compounds, primarily hydrocarbons (hydrogen and carbon), found beneath the Earth's crust.

Understanding Natural Resources

Natural resources are materials or substances occurring in nature, of either biotic or abiotic origin,... Continue reading "Essential Environmental and Agricultural Concepts" »