Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Global Impact of Pollution

Global Impact: Pollution involves the introduction of new compounds or changes in the quantities of existing compounds to levels that are dangerous. These alterations affect natural cycles. Changes in the state and location of elements, such as the release of carbon into the atmosphere from fossil fuels or retained by plants, contribute to greenhouse gases and global warming. Modifications include changes in land use, erosion, and deforestation. Overexploitation of mineral resources leads to biodiversity loss and potentially a sixth mass extinction. The overall impact includes global warming and the greenhouse effect.

Pollution: Causes and Types

Pollution: Causes and Types: Pollution can result from natural biological... Continue reading "Understanding Pollution: Causes, Types, and Global Impact" »

Earthquakes: When the Earth Shakes

The Dynamics of Plate Tectonics: The Earth's lithosphere is responsible for most earthquakes. Some tectonic plates pull apart, others collide, and some slide along one another. These interactions generate tensions that accumulate slowly, causing elastic deformation in the rocks. When the rocks fracture, they release the accumulated energy, giving rise to earthquakes.

Earthquakes are generated on ridges, in subduction zones, and on transform faults. They are due to the brutal ground shaking caused by the fracturing of rocks at depth, which suddenly releases large amounts of energy accumulated over years. Seismic waves are generated in an area called the hypocenter (a point several kilometers deep) and are picked... Continue reading "Earthquakes and Oceanic Expansion: A Detailed Look" »

Understanding the Barcelona City Map

The city map of Barcelona represents the layout of streets and buildings in this vibrant city. While not entirely complete, it *effectively illustrates* the urban structure. It indicates the names of some neighborhoods and institutions, and *topography is clearly shown* by contour lines. Drawn by the *Cartographic Institute of Catalonia*, the map *lacks explicit indications* of scale, legend, or orientation.

Barcelona's Urban Morphology and Layout

Barcelona boasts a *distinct seaside location*, with its design influenced by both natural and man-made barriers. To the *east-southeast*, the sea forms an absolute limit, while the *north-northwest end* is naturally bounded by *Mount Tibidabo*. In the south, *Montjuïc... Continue reading "Barcelona's Urban Fabric: A Cartographic Analysis" »

Earth's Interacting Systems

The Earth system is a complex network of interacting components. The four main components are the atmospheric, biological, geological, and hydrological systems. These four interdependent subsystems constantly interact. For example, pollution from the geological system can affect the atmosphere, which in turn can impact the biological system.

Two primary energy sources drive these interactions: solar energy (driving the active movement of materials in the atmosphere and hydrosphere) and internal energy (driving geological activity). Gravity plays a crucial role in the circulation of matter.

The biosphere is the most dynamic and complex subsystem, constantly evolving and adapting. Human activity significantly alters the... Continue reading "Earth's Systems & Environmental Challenges: A Global Perspective" »

The Colosseum: A Juxtaposition of Theaters

Construction for shows arose from the juxtaposition of two theaters. The plant is elliptical. It has two clearly differentiated parts: the cavea where spectators are located and the arena where the show takes place. The caveas are arranged on three floors communicated whose corridors were covered with groin vaults or cannon. The enclosed arena with a complex device below where they were kept underground objects, machines and machinations. The floor of the arena located above the underground era wood.

Access to the stands towards the door through brokers. Outside each floor galleries open arches, with different order semicolumns each floor. The Tuscan first jonido the second and the third Corinthian.... Continue reading "The Colosseum: Architecture and Spectacle in Ancient Rome" »

Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is obtained from virtually inexhaustible natural sources. These sources regenerate naturally or have immense energy reserves. They are categorized into clean and polluting sources.

Clean sources include:

• Blue energy (fresh and saltwater bodies)
• Wind power
• Geothermal energy
• Hydropower (rivers and streams)
• Tidal power (seas and oceans)
• Solar energy
• Wave energy

Hydropower

Hydropower utilizes water falling from a height to move turbines. It requires reservoirs, dams, and channels. Hydropower harnesses the energy of moving water.

Radioactive Waste

Radioactive wastes contain radioactive elements with no practical use. They are byproducts of nuclear processes, fuel processing, and medical applications.

Radioactive contamination... Continue reading "Renewable Energy Sources and Nuclear Power" »

Fog: Definition and Types

Fog is a dense air mass near the ground, often characterized by humidity. It forms through various processes:

• Irradiation Fog: Produced by nocturnal cooling due to the lack of solar radiation. The cold air mass condenses, leading to precipitation.
• Evaporation Fog: Occurs when warm water from lakes and rivers evaporates into cooler air, causing condensation.
• Marine Cooling Fog: Forms when a warm, moist air mass from the sea moves over a cooler continent.
• Dew: Forms when air is heated during the day, then cools and saturates at night due to increased solar irradiation and altitude, precipitating small water droplets.

Frost

Frost occurs when the soil surface temperature falls below 0°C (32°F), causing dew to freeze.

Thermal

Factors Influencing the Spanish Fluvial System

Spanish hydrology is characterized by both surface water and groundwater. These may manifest as flowing rivers and streams or stagnant lakes and wetlands. A river is a continuous stream of water that flows into the sea, another river, or a lake. Peninsular rivers are conditioned by several factors:

• Climate: Rainfall significantly influences river flow and its annual variations, as do temperature and evaporation rates.
• Relief and Topography: The organization of rivers and watersheds is influenced by topography, with river erosion increasing with slope.
• Lithology: This determines the dominance of surface runoff versus underground water flow.
• Vegetation: Vegetation slows evaporation and reduces erosion

The Early Earth

The Earth formed approximately 4,600 million years ago, with temperatures exceeding today's by hundreds of degrees. These high temperatures were partly due to meteor impacts. The Earth's rock melted, and heavier elements like iron and nickel sank to the planet's center. This began a slow cooling and solidification of the outer layer. Elements combined to form various compounds. Almost all oxygen combined with hydrogen to form water, with carbon to form carbon dioxide, and with other elements (methane and carbon monoxide) to form minerals. After millions of years, the temperature dropped below 100°C, and steam clouds condensed, raining for hundreds of years to form slightly salty oceans.

Early Atmosphere

Scientists believe Earth'... Continue reading "Origin of Life: Earth's Early Conditions and Theories" »

Soybean Crop: Origin and Significance

Soy is of Asian origin. Today, it is one of the most important legumes in the country. In 1994, there were 184,056 hectares cultivated, with an annual production of 370,846 tonnes.

Climate and Soil Requirements

The appropriate temperatures range from a minimum of 12°C to 30°C.

Sowing Techniques

1. Prepare the soil thoroughly.
2. Select high-quality seeds.
3. The amount of seed varies according to the size of the seed. It may range from 65 kg for small seed varieties to 120 kg for large seeds, with an average of 2 bushels (92 kg).
4. Aim for a plant density of 400,000 to 900,000 plants per hectare.
5. Create furrows for planting with a distance of 60 cm between them. If planting in a line, sow 15 to 30 seeds per meter. The depth