Item 3: Hydrology and Vegetation

Key Hydrological Terms

• River: A natural stream of water that flows into another river, a lake, or the sea.
• Full Flow: The amount of water flowing in one second past a point in the river.
• Drought: A period during which a stream reaches its lowest flow.
• Flooding: Time of maximum river flow.
• Torrente: An impetuous and violent stream, linked to heavy rains.
• Runoff: The relationship between the amount of rainfall and the amount of water that a river has.
• Fluvial Regime: The seasonal variation in the flow of a river.
• Catchment: Land whose waters pour into a main river and its tributaries.
• Slope Basin: A set of water catchments discharging to the same sea.
• Hydraulic Works: Buildings that are intended to regulate water resources

Types of Bone Fractures

According to Their Pattern of Interruption

Incomplete Fracture: The fracture line does not cover the entire thickness of the bone.

• Fissures: Affects part of the thickness of the bone.
• Greenstick Fractures: Bending fractures in flexible bones (children).
• Bamboo Fractures: Children's fractures generated by compression, produced by a wrinkling of the bone cortex.

Complete Fracture: Affecting the entire thickness of the bone. It can be divided into:

• Simple Fractures: They have a single line and there is no displacement.
• Complete Fractures with Displacement: One fragment deflects relative to the other. If the normal alignment of the longitudinal axis of the bone is lost, it is said to be angled (may be in varus or valgus).

Depending

Perennial Saline Lakes

Perennial saline lakes are common in tropical and subtropical regions with relatively low rainfall. They include:

• Soda lakes (trona: Na₂CO₃.HNaCO₃.2H₂O)
• Sulphate lakes (mirabilite: Na₂SO₄.10H₂O)
• Chloride lakes (halite: NaCl)
• Nitrate lakes (Chile salpeter: NaNO₃)

Ephemeral Lakes

Ephemeral lakes form in dry regions where seasonal effects and evaporation play an important role in the sedimentation pattern. They include:

• Playa lakes
• Salt pans
• Oxbow lakes

Sub-Environments and Processes

Stratification

As the upper water layer is heated by the sun, an exponential temperature curve is expected in lakes, but this is seldom the case due to various factors. Evaporation at the surface cools the uppermost layer and produces convection currents,... Continue reading "Lake Environments: Types, Processes, and Sedimentation" »

Precipitation

According to the process leading to their formation:

Orographic Precipitation

Terrain features, such as mountains and ridges, act as fixed screens and barriers. These force moist, warm air masses to rise. Consequently, this results in an adiabatic process that culminates in condensation and precipitation.

Convective Precipitation

Convective precipitation results from the warming of soil or water and the air in contact with it. This warm, moist air rises because its density is less than that of the upper layers. In doing so, it undergoes an adiabatic process that leads to condensation and rain.

Cyclonic Precipitation

A cyclone is an enormous mass of air that spins at very high speeds around a vortex. It is formed by strong temperature... Continue reading "Precipitation Types and Measurement Methods" »

We frequently use the word energy. In the late nineteenth century, science endorsed this concept and gave it a more precise meaning. Many properties of matter can be used to define different kinds of energy that can transform into each other and transfer from some bodies to others.

Kinetic and Potential Energy

An object in motion can collide with another and produce changes. This is known as kinetic energy and can be expressed mathematically as: E_c = 1/2mv². An object located at a certain height may fall, start moving, and push another. This is gravitational potential energy, and we can write it as: E_p = mgh.

Energy Conservation

Energy is conserved in any transformation. If an object falls from a height, it loses potential energy, but that energy... Continue reading "Understanding Energy: Forms, Conservation, and Sources" »

Environmental Impact Assessment

Description of Actions and Their Impacts

The description of actions and their potential environmental impacts will include:

1. Location: Clearly define the geographical location of the proposed action.
2. Environmental Viewpoint: Describe the action from an environmental perspective, considering its potential interactions with the surrounding environment.
3. Relationship of Actions: Outline the relationship between all actions involved, specifically those capable of producing an environmental impact.
4. Materials and Resources: Describe the materials used, earthworks to be undertaken, land occupation, and any other natural resources whose removal is deemed necessary for project execution.
5. Waste and Emissions: Describe the type,

Ecosystem Load Limits and Human Impact

An ecosystem has a load limit, which is the maximum number of individuals it can sustain regularly. Each species tends to reproduce and increase its population until environmental resources reach a point where they cannot support further growth. At this point, the population stabilizes, reaching the load limit for that species. Humanity's advanced technology and increased consumption of natural resources cause environmental changes that affect the global biosphere. While technology can alter local conditions to favor human needs, the biosphere remains subject to its limits.

Loss of Biodiversity

Causes: Degradation of ecosystems and alterations that disrupt ecological equilibrium. Consequences: Species extinction... Continue reading "Ecosystem Load Limits, Biodiversity Loss, and Sustainable Development" »

Orogen: geological structures originally larger d is due to internal heat molded by external agents.

Meander: Curves in the path of a river where erosion occurs on the outside and sedimentation on the inside.

Dolina: Subsidence in the ground caused by the dissolution in the subsurface.

Loess: Extensive clay deposits transpote wind up thousands of miles

Morrenas: are deposits of sediment is called till, which is transported by glaciers

Domain Mediterranean: are temperate climates are dry and rainfall in spring and autumn floods. Streams and wadis are dry all year round except when it rains. The sediment-laden water flows for this reason the presence of alluvial fans in the valley bottom end their tour the streams and ravines. Vegetation is... Continue reading "Key Geological Terms and Weathering Factors" »

Study Methods of Earth's Interior

Several methods are used to study the Earth's interior:

• Probes and Mines: Direct observation is limited by depth (radius ~6371 km, probes go as deep as 13km).
• Study of Rocks: Natural phenomena like erosion and volcanic eruptions expose deeper rocks.
• Meteorites: Provide information about the primordial materials of the solar system, including Earth.
• Seismic Methods: The most effective method. Analysis of seismic waves from earthquakes that travel through the Earth's interior, providing data via seismographs.

Inner Layers of the Earth

The Earth's internal layers are distributed in order of increasing density, separated by seismic discontinuities.

Compositional Layers

• Crust and Mantle: Composed of rocks, with the less

Earth's Structure and Landforms

The Lithosphere

Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago. Its internal structure consists of:

• The Core: The center of Earth.
• The Mantle: Surrounds the core.
• The Crust: A thin layer of solid rocks.

The external structure includes:

• The Lithosphere: Composed of the crust and the upper part of the mantle.
• The Hydrosphere: All the water on Earth.
• The Atmosphere: The gaseous layer surrounding Earth.

Continents

Continents are large expanses of dry land surrounded by oceans and seas, covering 29% of Earth's surface. The majority are located in the Northern Hemisphere:

• Asia
• America
• Africa
• Antarctica
• Europe
• Oceania

Islands

Islands are smaller masses of land surrounded by water, often located near the coast of continents. Some islands are grouped... Continue reading "Earth's Structure, Landforms, and Climate Zones" »