Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

The Colosseum: A Juxtaposition of Theaters

Construction for shows arose from the juxtaposition of two theaters. The plant is elliptical. It has two clearly differentiated parts: the cavea where spectators are located and the arena where the show takes place. The caveas are arranged on three floors communicated whose corridors were covered with groin vaults or cannon. The enclosed arena with a complex device below where they were kept underground objects, machines and machinations. The floor of the arena located above the underground era wood.

Access to the stands towards the door through brokers. Outside each floor galleries open arches, with different order semicolumns each floor. The Tuscan first jonido the second and the third Corinthian.... Continue reading "The Colosseum: Architecture and Spectacle in Ancient Rome" »

Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is obtained from virtually inexhaustible natural sources. These sources regenerate naturally or have immense energy reserves. They are categorized into clean and polluting sources.

Clean sources include:

• Blue energy (fresh and saltwater bodies)
• Wind power
• Geothermal energy
• Hydropower (rivers and streams)
• Tidal power (seas and oceans)
• Solar energy
• Wave energy

Hydropower

Hydropower utilizes water falling from a height to move turbines. It requires reservoirs, dams, and channels. Hydropower harnesses the energy of moving water.

Radioactive Waste

Radioactive wastes contain radioactive elements with no practical use. They are byproducts of nuclear processes, fuel processing, and medical applications.

Radioactive contamination... Continue reading "Renewable Energy Sources and Nuclear Power" »

Fog: Definition and Types

Fog is a dense air mass near the ground, often characterized by humidity. It forms through various processes:

• Irradiation Fog: Produced by nocturnal cooling due to the lack of solar radiation. The cold air mass condenses, leading to precipitation.
• Evaporation Fog: Occurs when warm water from lakes and rivers evaporates into cooler air, causing condensation.
• Marine Cooling Fog: Forms when a warm, moist air mass from the sea moves over a cooler continent.
• Dew: Forms when air is heated during the day, then cools and saturates at night due to increased solar irradiation and altitude, precipitating small water droplets.

Frost

Frost occurs when the soil surface temperature falls below 0°C (32°F), causing dew to freeze.

Thermal

Factors Influencing the Spanish Fluvial System

Spanish hydrology is characterized by both surface water and groundwater. These may manifest as flowing rivers and streams or stagnant lakes and wetlands. A river is a continuous stream of water that flows into the sea, another river, or a lake. Peninsular rivers are conditioned by several factors:

• Climate: Rainfall significantly influences river flow and its annual variations, as do temperature and evaporation rates.
• Relief and Topography: The organization of rivers and watersheds is influenced by topography, with river erosion increasing with slope.
• Lithology: This determines the dominance of surface runoff versus underground water flow.
• Vegetation: Vegetation slows evaporation and reduces erosion

The Early Earth

The Earth formed approximately 4,600 million years ago, with temperatures exceeding today's by hundreds of degrees. These high temperatures were partly due to meteor impacts. The Earth's rock melted, and heavier elements like iron and nickel sank to the planet's center. This began a slow cooling and solidification of the outer layer. Elements combined to form various compounds. Almost all oxygen combined with hydrogen to form water, with carbon to form carbon dioxide, and with other elements (methane and carbon monoxide) to form minerals. After millions of years, the temperature dropped below 100°C, and steam clouds condensed, raining for hundreds of years to form slightly salty oceans.

Early Atmosphere

Scientists believe Earth'... Continue reading "Origin of Life: Earth's Early Conditions and Theories" »

Soybean Crop: Origin and Significance

Soy is of Asian origin. Today, it is one of the most important legumes in the country. In 1994, there were 184,056 hectares cultivated, with an annual production of 370,846 tonnes.

Climate and Soil Requirements

The appropriate temperatures range from a minimum of 12°C to 30°C.

Sowing Techniques

1. Prepare the soil thoroughly.
2. Select high-quality seeds.
3. The amount of seed varies according to the size of the seed. It may range from 65 kg for small seed varieties to 120 kg for large seeds, with an average of 2 bushels (92 kg).
4. Aim for a plant density of 400,000 to 900,000 plants per hectare.
5. Create furrows for planting with a distance of 60 cm between them. If planting in a line, sow 15 to 30 seeds per meter. The depth

Tectonic Dispositions

• Horizontal or Aclinal Relief: Self-sedimented areas with horizontal strata, alternating hard and soft layers. Water systems erode softer layers, creating residual relief.
• Monoclinal Relief: Gently sloping sedimentary areas with alternating hard and soft materials. Erosion forms steep slopes and isolated hills.
• Faulted or Germanic Structure: Results from pressure exceeding rock deformation capacity, leading to fractures, uplifted blocks, and sunken areas.
• Folded Relief: Formed by folding of sedimentary rocks due to compression. Anticlines are prone to erosion, while synclines retain more compact materials.

Appalachian Relief

Folded relief leveled by erosion, forming a base.

Jurassic Relief

Found in young mountain ranges with alternating... Continue reading "Understanding Landforms: Tectonics and Stress Factors" »

Fossil Fuels: A Deep Dive

Most of the energy used worldwide today comes from fossil fuels. They are used in transportation, to generate electricity, to heat rooms, and for cooking.

Fossil fuels include oil, coal, and natural gas, formed millions of years ago from the organic remains of dead plants and animals. Over millennia, the remains of organisms were deposited at the bottom of seas, lakes, and other water bodies, covered by layers of sediment. Chemical reactions of decomposition and the pressure exerted by the weight of these layers transformed these organic remains into gas, oil, or coal.

The Non-Renewable Nature of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources; we cannot replace what we consume. They will eventually run out, and it... Continue reading "Fossil Fuels: Formation, Uses, and Future Availability" »

Atmospheric Pollution

The combustion of hydrocarbons, largely due to industrial processes or transportation, generates smoke, suspended particulates, and gaseous pollutants. The most common are carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and hydrogen sulfide.

Industrial facilities and power plants usually emit a greater volume of contaminants. In the developed world, the danger of some issues has forced the relocation of industries to industrial belts outside of densely populated urban areas. However, emissions are still causing serious environmental problems.

Acid Rain and Smog

Emissions of sulfur and nitrogen react in the atmosphere when in contact with oxygen, water vapor, and light, producing mainly sulfuric acid and nitric... Continue reading "Atmospheric Pollution and Environmental Degradation: Causes and Effects" »

Physical Properties of Oil

Color: Varies from yellow to reddish-brown. The color darkens with increasing specific gravity, which increases with the percentage of asphalt.

Odor: Varies depending on the amount of light hydrocarbons and impurities. Examples include a pleasant smell of petrol to an unpleasant odor similar to combustion.

Specific Weight: Oil is lighter than water. Its weight is influenced by factors such as the percentage of asphalt.

Viscosity: Depending on the specific gravity and chemical composition, oil can be either very fluid or viscous.

Solubility: Insoluble in water; due to its lighter weight, it remains on the surface. It is soluble in benzene, ether, chloroform, and other organic solvents.

Chemical Properties of Oil

Crude oil... Continue reading "Understanding Oil: Physical, Chemical Properties and Types" »