Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

1. Structure of the Atmosphere

1.1. Lonosphere

Here, equi-rays and gamma rays are absorbed. Comets appear.

1.2. Mesosphere

It contains clouds of ice and dust.

1.3. Stratosphere

The ozone layer is located here.

1.4. Troposphere

It contains 80% of the total mass of Earth. It is where meteorological phenomena occur.

2. The Weather and the Climate

2.1. Weather

Weather refers to a series of atmospheric phenomena that occur at a specific moment in a specific place.

2.2. Climate

Climate refers to the main atmospheric phenomena in a specific region over a long period of time.

3. Atmospheric Phenomena

They occur in the troposphere and are responsible for changes in the weather. The wind and water in the air can cause these phenomena.

3.1. Atmospheric Phenomena Caused

The Cell: Discovery and Fundamental Theory

Key Discoveries in Cell Biology

The journey into understanding cells began with groundbreaking observations:

• Robert Hooke, using a simple microscope he built, observed and described "cells" in cork in 1665.
• In 1674, Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe living cells and microorganisms in water, which he called "animalcules."
• The botanist Robert Brown discovered a corpuscle inside plant cells in 1831, which he named the nucleus.
• The medical term "protoplasm" was introduced by Johannes Purkinje in 1839 to designate the liquid substance that fills the cell, essential for its health and integrity.

The Cell Theory

In 1838-1839, the botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann... Continue reading "Cell Biology Fundamentals: Structure, Discovery, and Organelles" »

Earth and Geographic Features

Circles perpendicular and parallel to the terrestrial axis are parallel. Ecuador, at 0 degrees, is a semicircle. Meridians go from pole to pole. Meridian 0 degrees passes through Greenwich.

Latitude and Longitude

Latitude is the angular distance from any point of land to Ecuador. Longitude represents the distance from meridian 0.

Maps and Relief

A map proportionally represents land or a part of it. Geography is the science that studies landscapes, understood as a set of physical and human elements that relate to each other.

Relief is the set of forms that the Earth's surface presents, shaped by terrestrial forces.

Morphostructural Units

Organic and erosive forms are the internal disposition that relief takes. Erosion is... Continue reading "Earth Science: Landforms, Climate, and Water Flow" »

The Crisis in Rural Areas

The crisis manifests itself in two key indicators: a decrease in the active population employed in the sector and a reduction in its contribution to GDP, currently around 3%. However, it is important to note that agricultural GDP grew in absolute terms. This situation has led to a reduced participation of the agrarian sector in external trade relations with the other two sectors. The trade balance showed a deficit between 1970 and 1995. This deficit was caused by an increase in food imports, related to a rising standard of living, and imports of tropical and timber products.

Principal Challenges Facing Rural Spain

The principal problems facing rural Spain are as follows:

Demographic Issues

• Population Decline and Aging:

Essential Geological Terms: Tectonics and Landforms

Orogeny or Orogenic Movement

A set of geological processes that cause the formation and folding of mountain ranges.

Ancient Massif (Old Massif)

Mountainous terrain formed by crystalline and metamorphic materials from the Primary Era (Paleozoic or Precambrian). It exhibits rigid behavior against internal Earth forces, tending to fracture rather than fold under tectonic thrusts.

Peneplain

A large landform, gently undulating and characterized by a low slope. It results from a long cycle of erosion during periods of tectonic calm, leading to widespread leveling of the relief.

Tectonic Style (Structural Form)

A set of characteristics defining a tectonic structure and the mechanisms causing its deformation.... Continue reading "Essential Geological Terms: Tectonics, Landforms, and Earth Structure" »

Internal Geological Processes and Earth's Relief

Internal geological processes are responsible for the formation of Earth's relief. Plate tectonics explains the deformation of the crust and the formation of large mountain chains. Conversely, external agents produce geological weathering of rocks, destroy topography, and shape the landscape.

Understanding Diagenesis

Diagenesis includes all mechanical and chemical processes affecting a sedimentary deposit after its formation.

The Rock Cycle: Interaction of Earth Processes

The rock cycle represents the interaction of the Earth's internal and external processes.

The cycle involves three main rock types:

• Sediments, when compacted, cemented, and sometimes recrystallized, form sedimentary rocks.
• Rocks subjected

Forestry Management Techniques: Thinning and Clearing

Thinning (Estassada): This forestry technique must be applied correctly. It involves selectively cutting certain components of the forest to preserve trees with higher value and eliminate other woody species. Proper application is crucial for forest health.

A related concern is the degradation of grazing areas within the forest.

Sustainable Soil Management and Erosion Control

Factors affecting production include high levels of waste contamination, overuse of fertilizers and pesticides, and soil erosion. These phenomena pose significant environmental problems for human beings.

Measures to reduce soil erosion are generally aimed at changing the characteristics or shape of the ground to minimize... Continue reading "Sustainable Land Use and Landscape Dynamics" »

Energy is the capacity of a body or system to make changes.

Forms of Energy

As per the law of conservation of energy, "Energy is neither created nor destroyed, only transformed." Energy can manifest itself in several ways:

• Mechanical energy: Associated with motion (e.g., lifting a backpack).
• Thermal energy: Related to temperature (e.g., warm water).
• Chemical energy: Associated with chemical reactions (e.g., coal combustion).
• Nuclear energy: Derived from the decay of radioactive substances.
• Radiant energy: Associated with electromagnetic radiation (e.g., light, microwaves).
• Electrical energy: Related to the movement of electric charges.

Energy Sources and Classifications

We refer to conventional sources as those that provide most of the energy in various... Continue reading "Energy Fundamentals: Forms, Sources, and Production" »

Conventional Electricity Generation Methods

Conventional energy sources are currently the most significant contributors to global power generation:

• Thermal Power Generation

  Thermal power plants burn fuel to produce heat, which converts water into high-pressure steam. This steam then moves turbines connected to electrical generators, producing electricity. Coal is the most commonly used fuel in these plants.

• Nuclear Power Generation

  Nuclear power is produced from the fission (or breaking apart) of atoms of radioactive minerals, primarily uranium. This fission process, carried out in nuclear power plants, generates heat that warms water to create high-pressure steam. The steam drives turbines, which in turn generate electricity.

• Hydropower Generation

  Hydropower

Key Characteristics of Islamic Architecture

Islamic architecture is characterized by its profound harmony and integration with the surrounding landscape. Buildings often feature modest heights, and water elements, symbolizing paradise, are frequently incorporated, sometimes used to create a mirror-like effect.

The geographic origins of Islam and its religious art profoundly influenced its architectural development. The desert environment fostered a preference for horizontal lines, and the nomadic Bedouin Arabs favored small-scale constructions. While the mosque serves as the most important building—a central place for community and prayer—Islamic builders also constructed palaces, mausoleums, madrassas, and other structures.

Architectural