Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geology

Chapter 6 - Glaciers

Glacier Formation

Describe how glaciers form (using the terms zone of accumulation and zone of ablation).

Zone of Accumulation

• The area where a glacier forms.
• More snow falls in winter than melts in summer.

Zone of Wastage

• The area where there is a net loss due to melting.

Zone of Fracture

• Uppermost 50 meters.
• Crevasses form in brittle ice in this zone.

What part of the glacier behaves brittly? Plastically?

Types of Glacial Movements

• Plastic flow
• Slipping along the ground below 50 meters

Brittly in the picture

Valley Glaciers vs. Continental Glaciers

What are valley glaciers? Continental glaciers? Examples of each.

1. Valley, or alpine glaciers – form in mountainous areas
2. Ice sheets, or continental glaciers
   • Large scale e.g., Over Greenland

Chapter 8 – Earthquakes

What is the elastic rebound theory? Is it possible for energy building up in the lithosphere to be released in a sequence of earthquakes?

Rocks “spring back” – a phenomenon called elastic rebound

Energy is released in a sequence of earthquakes (one earthquake can trigger slip on a nearby fault)

What is a seismic body wave, and what characterizes each of the two types of body waves (i.e. type of motion, velocity)?

1. Primary(P) waves(spring)=push&pull motion, greatest velocity, arrive first, travel solid, liquid, gases.
2. Secondary(S) waves (rope)=up&down motion, slower velocity, arrive after P at seismograph, travel only solid.

What is a seismic surface wave, and what characterizes each of the two types of surface

Adipocere Formation Over Time

On Earth, over time, adipocere undergoes certain changes that allow us to distinguish between recent (or young) adipocere and old adipocere. Recent adipocere may show little uniformity and thickness on portions of foreign tissues (remains of muscles, tendons, or ligaments). Old adipocere is hard, dry, and somewhat brittle; its structure is more homogeneous.

Conditions for Saponification

Environmental Conditions

Circumstances that favor adipocere formation include:

1. When the corpse has been submerged in water or in an area of low current.
2. When the corpse has been buried in damp clay soil.
3. When many bodies have been buried in contact with each other: the bodies in the lower layers tend to saponify to a greater or lesser

1 - The Deciduous Forest

It consists of tall trees with straight trunks, smooth bark, and large leaves that fall in autumn. This forest type has relatively few species, often forming large masses. The most common features are Carballo oak and beech. In the understory, ferns and mosses thrive in a somber mood created by the treetops.

2 - The Heath and Grasslands

The Landa is a dense shrubland, whose height can be low or reach 4 feet. Its most abundant species are heather, gorse, and broom. The heath is considered a form of deciduous forest degradation or supraforestal vegetation. It is often used for animal bedding and then as fertilizer.

The meadows are herbaceous vegetation occupying large tracts of land with ocean views.

The Vegetation of the

Plate Tectonics: Key Concepts

• Biological Puzzles

  The existence of land bridges or island chains that connected the ancient continents.

• Geographic Enigmas

  The outer edge of the continent is under the sea where the continental shelf terminates.

• Geological Riddles

  There is a correspondence between geological structures present on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.

Scenarios of Continental Drift

According to Wegener, all continents were part of a large landmass (supercontinent called Pangea).

• Paleomagnetic Tests

  During the cooling of lava, ferrous minerals align. Studying these minerals indicates the position of the north pole.

• Oceanographic Evidence

  The discovery of the oceanic ridge system that splits the great oceans.

• Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis

  Harry Hess

Chapter 5 - River Systems

How rivers and streams work – Gradient (know this!)

• Streamflow
  • Factors that determine velocity
  • Gradient, or slope
  • Channel characteristics
    • Shape
    • Size
    • Roughness
    • Discharge – volume of water flowing in the stream (generally expressed as cubic feet per second)
• Gradient highest nearest river source, where is it lowest?
• Upstream-downstream changes
  • Profile
  • Cross-sectional view of a stream
  • From head (source) to mouth
  • Profile is a smooth curve
  • Gradient decreases from the head to the mouth
  • Factors that increase downstream
    • Velocity
    • Discharge

Base level

Rivers flow and/or erode to the lowest level, ultimately to sea level

• Base level
  • Lowest point a stream can erode to
  • Two general types
    • Ultimate – sea level
    • Temporary, or local
  • Changing causes readjustment

Understanding Natural Resources

In human terms, a resource is anything we obtain from the environment to satisfy our needs and desires. All living things require basic resources such as food, water, and shelter. Some resources are directly usable, while others require effort or technology to become useful.

Types of Natural Resources

Perpetual Resources

These resources are virtually inexhaustible on human timescales. Examples include direct and indirect solar energy (wind, running water).

Non-Renewable Resources

Non-renewable resources exist in a fixed amount within the Earth's crust. They may form through natural processes, but over millions or billions of years (e.g., oil takes 600 million years to form). While complete exhaustion is rare, economic... Continue reading "Understanding Natural Resources: Types, Sustainability, and Challenges" »

Landforms and Geological Agents

Forms of relief are shaped by geological agents and influenced by weather patterns.

Factors Influencing Landforms

• Weather
• Human population density
• Vegetation and fauna
• Ground viewpoint
• Subjective aspects

Geological Agents and Relief Modeling

Geological agents, such as rivers, play a crucial role in modeling relief:

• Rivers: Modeling river waters originates wild streams, U-shaped karst waters.
• Coastal wind: Wind modeling.

Climate is a significant factor influencing the type of landscape.

Geologic agents include weather, vegetation, wildlife, and human activities.

The atmosphere influences weather phenomena, climate temperature, and rainfall. Air tends to flow from anticyclones towards depressions, causing wind.

Weathering Processes

Weathering... Continue reading "Landforms and Geological Agents: Shaping Our Environment" »

Materials: A Historical Perspective

Material is anything used to create something, any conglomeration of matter and mass. The history of civilization is linked to the history of materials.

The Stone Age

The Stone Age is the prehistoric period in which humans created tools from natural materials like stone, leather, and wood.

The Bronze Age

The Bronze Age marks the period when humans developed and created the first metal tools.

The Iron Age

The Iron Age represents a significant leap forward, with humans creating more advanced tools and weapons like spears and knives.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution, spanning the 19th and 20th centuries, was driven by discoveries such as plastics, silicon derivatives, computers, and textile fibers.... Continue reading "Materials: History, Types, and Properties" »