Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Acid Rain

The fuels used for locomotion and electricity generation emit sulfur and nitrogen oxides. These chemicals react with water in the clouds and produce acids.

Consequences:

• The soil and the water of lakes and rivers acidify.
• Trees and aquatic organisms become ill and can die.
• The acids attack and dissolve limestone.

Solutions:

• Decrease the consumption of fossil fuels.
• Eliminate the sulfur before using the fuel.
• Eliminate oxides before releasing them into the atmosphere.

Greenhouse Effect

The problem appears when the presence of carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor in the atmosphere is larger than normal. The abuse of fossil fuels is the source of carbon dioxide. Farts and escapes from underwater methane are the main sources.

Global Warming:

An... Continue reading "Environmental Problems and Solutions" »

Chapter 5: Coastal Waters: Estuaries and Seafloors (Pp. 67-85)

Estuary Characteristics

Estuaries are distinguished by:

• Salinity Variation:
• Turbidity:

Plankton's Ecological Importance

Plankton plays a vital role in various ecosystems:

• Estuaries: Plankton abundance supports diverse marine life, including shrimp, crabs, oysters, and fish.
• Ocean: Phytoplankton forms the base of the ocean's food web.
• Atmosphere: Diatoms, a type of phytoplankton, help regulate the Earth's climate by absorbing carbon dioxide.

Ecological Value of Marine Worms

Polychaete and oligochaete plumed worms are crucial food sources for numerous fish and bird species, supporting the intricate balance of marine ecosystems.

Mollusks of Florida Coral Reefs

Three major mollusk classes inhabit... Continue reading "Coastal Waters of Florida: Estuaries, Seafloors, and Seagrass Meadows" »

Evidence from Rocks About Life

Rocks are an important source of information about many forms of life that existed on this planet.

Why Can't Scientists Be Sure How Earth Was Created?

Because no rocks date to the formation of the Earth.

How Fossil Teeth Reveal an Animal's Diet

Size and shape indicate diet.

Explaining Relative Dating of Fossils

Sedimentary rocks form layers, with newer layers added on top of older layers. This does not tell scientists the exact age of the fossil; however, it does tell the scientist the fossil's age in relation to other fossils above or below it.

Common Radioactive Isotopes

Potassium-40 and Carbon-14 are two common radioactive isotopes.

What Is a Mass Extinction?

A mass extinction is when many organisms disappear from the... Continue reading "Unlocking Earth's History: Fossils, Rocks, and the Story of Life" »

SYSTEMS

Can be small or large, living or non-living.

Types: open, close and isolated

• Open: exchanges both energy and matter
• Close: only exchange energy
• Isolated: Energy and matter is not exchange

Transfer: Basic flow through a system. Change in location of energy or matter.

Transformation: A new product is created. Change of state.

First law or thermodynamics: energy in an isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed.

Second law or thermodynamics: is lost in the different levels of a system.

Entropy: is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system.

Negative feedback:

Positive feedback:

PRODUCTIVITY

Is the conversion of energy into biomass over a given period of time.

Biomass: is the living mass of an organism

Gross: total amount... Continue reading "Understanding Systems, Productivity, Global Warming, and Photochemical Smog" »

Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The relief of Bosnia and Herzegovina is mainly hilly and mountainous, with only 13.53% of the land situated between 0-200 meters above sea level. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a surface area of 51,209 square kilometers, of which the seaside is 12.2 square kilometers. In 1991, 4.38 million people lived in the country. Based on this, the average population density is around 85 inhabitants per square kilometer. According to the results of the 2013 census, there are 3,531,159 inhabitants in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Today, about 70% of the population lives in urban areas.

Bosnia and Herzegovina is shaped like a triangle. One side extends east-west, the other north-south, while the hypotenuse runs northwest-... Continue reading "Geography and Geology of Bosnia and Herzegovina" »

Echo sounding: is a type of sonar used to determine the depth of water by transmitting sound waves into water.

Trieste: is a city and a seaport in northeastern Italy. What is Trieste famous for? In the 19th century the monarchy was one of the Great Powers of Europe and Trieste was its most important seaport.

Deep sea winch: Fishing rod, mechanism

drift bottle : a bottle containing a record of the time and place at which it was set adrift in the ocean for supplying when recovered data to aid in determining the circulation of surface waters in the ocean

drogue: a device, typically conical or funnel-shaped with open ends, towed behind a boat, aircraft, or other moving object to reduce speed or improve stability.

Swallow Float: A tubular buoy used to... Continue reading "Exploring Oceanography: Tools and Techniques" »

Media and Film Vocabulary

• Cartoon: A movie made using characters that are drawn and not real. dibujos animados
• Chat show: A television or radio programme in which people are asked questions about themselves. programa de radio
• Comedy: A funny movie or play. comedia
• Cookery programme: A television genre that presents food preparation in a kitchen, located in a restaurant or on a studio set.
• Documentary: A film or television programme that gives facts about a real situation. documental
• Drama: A play in a theatre or on television or radio. obra de teatro
• Film: A story that is shown in moving pictures on a screen, usually at a cinema or on television. película
• Game show: A programme on television in which people play games to try to win prizes. concurso

Mesozoic Sediments in the Dinarides

Mesozoic sediments in the outer Dinarides are classic carbonate sediments, while the central and inner Dinarides have volcano-sedimentary and flysch sediments.

Triassic Period

The Triassic sediments spread over the Vrnograč and Bosanski Novi band over western Bosnia, north and northeast Herzegovina, and southeast Bosnia. The second broader band goes from Vareš over Olovo, Glasnica, and Romanija to Višegrad.

Jurassic Period

The Jurassic period sediments occupy the largest part of the outer Dinaric zone, where it is mostly developed in the limestone-dolomite facies. It is located in the area of Bihać to Gacko and Trebinje. The Jurassic age volcano sediment formations are also found in the central zone from Kozara... Continue reading "Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sediments in Bosnia and Herzegovina" »

Sound Changes in Historical Linguistics

Assimilation

Assimilation occurs when a sound becomes more similar to an adjacent sound in voicing, manner, or place of articulation. The direction of assimilation can be:

• Regressive: For example, Old English wifman becomes wimman.
• Progressive: For example, Germanic *wulno becomes wullo and then Old English wull.

The extent of assimilation can be:

• Total: For example, Old English wifman.
• Partial: For example, Latin in + premiere becomes impremiere.

Assimilation can also be relative to the environment, such as:

• Immediate: For example, English attain.

Palatalization

Palatalization is a process in which a front vowel causes a sound to move forward or backward to become more palatal in articulation. For example:

• Old English

Storing Wind and Solar Power

Water reservoirs at different altitudes can be used to store energy generated from wind and solar power.

Solar Power Generation

Solar power involves several methods:

• Using solar cells (photovoltaics) to convert sunlight directly into electricity.
• Using sunlight hitting solar thermal panels to heat water or air.
• Using sunlight hitting a parabolic mirror to heat water, producing steam.
• Using sunlight entering windows for passive solar heating of a building.

It would be advantageous to place solar panels in regions with the highest solar radiation. Many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe.

Agricultural Biomass Energy

Biomass production involves using garbage or other renewable resources, such... Continue reading "Renewable Energy Sources: Solar, Biomass, and Geothermal Power" »