Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Types of Artificial Structures

The main types of structures that have appeared throughout the history of construction are the following:

Massive and Lintelled Structures

These structures were built by stacking rock or other materials, leaving little space between them. For example, to build the pyramids in Egypt, stone or clay blocks were stacked on top of each other. The first human-made structures were carved from rock or larger spaces and increase the size of the openings in the built structure.

Vaulted Structures

The arch was invented later, and vaults enabled builders to cover. Because of their shape, arches and vaults can only resist compression stresses and are self-supporting. They stay in position without mortar or cement. This type of... Continue reading "Types of Architectural Structures" »

Direct Methods in Formation Evaluation

Direct methods are primary techniques in formation evaluation used to obtain crucial rock and reservoir properties. Properties such as permeability, porosity, and water saturation are typically determined through these direct measurements. Generally, direct methods are performed using three main approaches: drilling operation logs (including mud logging), coring, and productivity tests.

Drilling Operation Log (Mud Logging)

• Provides a continuous record of the wellbore as it is being drilled.
• Involves the examination of drill cuttings and mud returns to determine rock and reservoir properties of the formation.
• Drilling parameters and observations are plotted against depth for comprehensive analysis.

Coring Techniques

Coring... Continue reading "Direct Methods for Rock & Reservoir Property Evaluation" »

The Four Spheres of the Earth

The Earth can be divided into four systems or spheres: geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. They all interact very closely with each other.

Geosphere

Scientists theorize that about 4.5 billion years ago, the Earth was a large ball of molten rock. The molten state was due to three processes that generated heat:

• The continuous impacts of planetesimals during accretion
• The differentiation of materials, due to gravity, into three layers of increasing density: crust, mantle, and core

Atmosphere

During the gravitational differentiation process, large quantities of gas were emitted. Hydrogen and helium escaped into space. Others, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor, were trapped in the crust. A primitive atmosphere... Continue reading "The Four Spheres of the Earth and Earthquake Study" »

Understanding Lateral Sounds

A lateral sound is an L-like consonant in which the airstream proceeds along the sides of the tongue but is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth. Most commonly, the tip of the tongue makes contact with the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge just behind the teeth.

Exploring Approximant Sounds

Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other, but not with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. This class of sounds includes:

• Lateral approximants like [l] (as in less)
• Non-lateral approximants like [ɹ] (as in rest)
• Semivowels like [j] and [w] (as in yes and west, respectively)

Defining Nasal Consonants and Their Production

Nasals are occlusive... Continue reading "English Speech Sounds: Consonant & Vowel Classification" »

Hydroelectric Power Generation

Hydroelectric power generation is an alternative to fossil fuels that produces fewer greenhouse gases. It does not produce high quantities of greenhouse gases.

Global Climate Change Definition

Global climate change is defined as modifications in Earth's climate.

Cap-and-Trade Program

In a cap-and-trade program, industries must buy permits for their emissions.

Carbon-Based Fuels in the Lithosphere

Carbon-based fuels in the lithosphere have been slowly sequestered over many millions of years.

Positive Feedback Mechanism in Climate Change

Warmer temperatures result in the melting of permafrost, which may result in a positive feedback mechanism that would intensify climate change.

US Senate's Stance on Emission Reductions

The... Continue reading "Climate Change and Energy: Impacts and Solutions" »

Thematic map:

A geographic map that displays the spatial pattern of a theme or series of attributes.

Physical map:

It focuses on the geography of the area.

Equator:

A line equidistant from the poles that divides the Earth into southern and northern hemispheres.

Meridian:

A line of constant longitude passing through the Earth and the poles.

Parallel:

An imaginary line extending through the Earth parallel to the equator.

Tropic:

Regions of the Earth that lie roughly in the middle of the globe.

Latitude:

Geographic coordinate that specifies the north-south position of a point on the Earth's surface.

Longitude:

Geographic coordinate that specifies the east-west position of a point on the Earth's surface.

Geographical Coordinates:

Quantities of latitude... Continue reading "Understanding Earth's Geography: Key Terms and Definitions" »

Energy Sources and Their Environmental Impact

An energy source is any natural or non-natural system from which we can obtain energy in any form. That's because in our everyday life we use huge amounts of energy for factories, transport, and heating. Obtaining, producing, and consuming energy can have several impacts, usually negative, on the environment. This impact varies tremendously depending on which type of energy source we use: renewable or non-renewable.

Non-Renewable Energy Impacts

Non-renewable energy sources include fossil fuels and nuclear energy (fission). The use of these energy sources leads to several problems:

• Release of CO2: This comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The carbon dioxide increases the greenhouse effect and contributes

Geodynamic Model

The lithosphere is the outermost layer of the geosphere, composed of the crust and upper mantle. It is divided into plates with clearly defined boundaries coinciding with major landforms. The mesosphere is the largest part of the geosphere and corresponds to the part of the mantle that does not form part of the lithosphere. The core is the center of the planet, consisting of an outer core and an inner core.

Age of the Seabed

Research projects have established that the seabed is expanding slowly, with new lithosphere formed on either side of the ridge axis. Paleomagnetism and magnetometers have provided evidence for the Earth's magnetic field and the symmetrical distribution of paleomagnetism bands on the seabed.

Theory of Plate

Vocabulary

Pollution

Pollution is any substance added to the environment that negatively impacts the environment or its organisms.

Smog

Smog is a type of air pollution where gases from burning fossil fuels react with sunlight to form a fog.

Particulate Matter

Particulate matter consists of microscopic particles of dust, metal, and unburned fuels produced by industrial processes.

Acid Rain

Acid rain is precipitation with a decreased pH due to atmospheric pollutants. It contains elevated levels of hydrogen ions and is caused by sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions from factories and power stations.

Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is the natural warming process where gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere.... Continue reading "Understanding Pollution and the Water Cycle" »