Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Echo sounding: is a type of sonar used to determine the depth of water by transmitting sound waves into water.

Trieste: is a city and a seaport in northeastern Italy. What is Trieste famous for? In the 19th century the monarchy was one of the Great Powers of Europe and Trieste was its most important seaport.

Deep sea winch: Fishing rod, mechanism

drift bottle : a bottle containing a record of the time and place at which it was set adrift in the ocean for supplying when recovered data to aid in determining the circulation of surface waters in the ocean

drogue: a device, typically conical or funnel-shaped with open ends, towed behind a boat, aircraft, or other moving object to reduce speed or improve stability.

Swallow Float: A tubular buoy used to... Continue reading "Exploring Oceanography: Tools and Techniques" »

Mesozoic Sediments in the Dinarides

Mesozoic sediments in the outer Dinarides are classic carbonate sediments, while the central and inner Dinarides have volcano-sedimentary and flysch sediments.

Triassic Period

The Triassic sediments spread over the Vrnograč and Bosanski Novi band over western Bosnia, north and northeast Herzegovina, and southeast Bosnia. The second broader band goes from Vareš over Olovo, Glasnica, and Romanija to Višegrad.

Jurassic Period

The Jurassic period sediments occupy the largest part of the outer Dinaric zone, where it is mostly developed in the limestone-dolomite facies. It is located in the area of Bihać to Gacko and Trebinje. The Jurassic age volcano sediment formations are also found in the central zone from Kozara... Continue reading "Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sediments in Bosnia and Herzegovina" »

Sound Changes in Historical Linguistics

Assimilation

Assimilation occurs when a sound becomes more similar to an adjacent sound in voicing, manner, or place of articulation. The direction of assimilation can be:

• Regressive: For example, Old English wifman becomes wimman.
• Progressive: For example, Germanic *wulno becomes wullo and then Old English wull.

The extent of assimilation can be:

• Total: For example, Old English wifman.
• Partial: For example, Latin in + premiere becomes impremiere.

Assimilation can also be relative to the environment, such as:

• Immediate: For example, English attain.

Palatalization

Palatalization is a process in which a front vowel causes a sound to move forward or backward to become more palatal in articulation. For example:

• Old English

Storing Wind and Solar Power

Water reservoirs at different altitudes can be used to store energy generated from wind and solar power.

Solar Power Generation

Solar power involves several methods:

• Using solar cells (photovoltaics) to convert sunlight directly into electricity.
• Using sunlight hitting solar thermal panels to heat water or air.
• Using sunlight hitting a parabolic mirror to heat water, producing steam.
• Using sunlight entering windows for passive solar heating of a building.

It would be advantageous to place solar panels in regions with the highest solar radiation. Many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe.

Agricultural Biomass Energy

Biomass production involves using garbage or other renewable resources, such... Continue reading "Renewable Energy Sources: Solar, Biomass, and Geothermal Power" »

Environmental Threats Facing Humanity

Irresponsible human actions are contributing to the emergence of serious problems that threaten humanity, such as:

• The process of desertification
• The destruction of forests
• The deterioration of the ozone layer
• The enhanced greenhouse effect
• Air and water pollution

Air Pollution: Major Sources and Impact

The largest air polluters are oil refineries and power plants. Cities, with their heating systems and vehicles, release carbon dioxide. In our country, approximately 150 pounds of pollutants per person are emitted into the atmosphere annually. The greatest pollution is recorded in urban areas of Madrid, Barcelona, and Bilbao. Acid rain is one of the three most serious environmental problems in Europe and America.... Continue reading "Environmental Threats: Acid Rain, Deforestation, Pollution" »

Earth's Internal Structure and Plate Tectonics

Seismic Wave Behavior at Different Depths

P-waves (primary waves) and S-waves (secondary waves) are seismic waves that travel through the Earth's interior. At a depth of 100 km, P-waves have a speed of 6 km/s. This speed increases to 8 km/s as the material becomes more rigid. The speed then decreases at the Mohorovičić discontinuity. After 300 km, the speed begins to rise again until it reaches a point where it increases slowly because the material is less rigid. The Repetti discontinuity separates the lower mantle from the upper mantle. Continuing on, P-waves reach a point where their speed plunges at a depth of over 3,000 km. This is where S-waves diminish completely, as the material is more... Continue reading "Earth's Layers, Seismic Waves, and the Wilson Cycle" »

Chapter 6 - Glaciers

Glacier Formation

Describe how glaciers form (using the terms zone of accumulation and zone of ablation).

Zone of Accumulation

• The area where a glacier forms.
• More snow falls in winter than melts in summer.

Zone of Wastage

• The area where there is a net loss due to melting.

Zone of Fracture

• Uppermost 50 meters.
• Crevasses form in brittle ice in this zone.

What part of the glacier behaves brittly? Plastically?

Types of Glacial Movements

• Plastic flow
• Slipping along the ground below 50 meters

Brittly in the picture

Valley Glaciers vs. Continental Glaciers

What are valley glaciers? Continental glaciers? Examples of each.

1. Valley, or alpine glaciers – form in mountainous areas
2. Ice sheets, or continental glaciers
   • Large scale e.g., Over Greenland

Chapter 8 – Earthquakes

What is the elastic rebound theory? Is it possible for energy building up in the lithosphere to be released in a sequence of earthquakes?

Rocks “spring back” – a phenomenon called elastic rebound

Energy is released in a sequence of earthquakes (one earthquake can trigger slip on a nearby fault)

What is a seismic body wave, and what characterizes each of the two types of body waves (i.e. type of motion, velocity)?

1. Primary(P) waves(spring)=push&pull motion, greatest velocity, arrive first, travel solid, liquid, gases.
2. Secondary(S) waves (rope)=up&down motion, slower velocity, arrive after P at seismograph, travel only solid.

What is a seismic surface wave, and what characterizes each of the two types of surface

Adipocere Formation Over Time

On Earth, over time, adipocere undergoes certain changes that allow us to distinguish between recent (or young) adipocere and old adipocere. Recent adipocere may show little uniformity and thickness on portions of foreign tissues (remains of muscles, tendons, or ligaments). Old adipocere is hard, dry, and somewhat brittle; its structure is more homogeneous.

Conditions for Saponification

Environmental Conditions

Circumstances that favor adipocere formation include:

1. When the corpse has been submerged in water or in an area of low current.
2. When the corpse has been buried in damp clay soil.
3. When many bodies have been buried in contact with each other: the bodies in the lower layers tend to saponify to a greater or lesser

1 - The Deciduous Forest

It consists of tall trees with straight trunks, smooth bark, and large leaves that fall in autumn. This forest type has relatively few species, often forming large masses. The most common features are Carballo oak and beech. In the understory, ferns and mosses thrive in a somber mood created by the treetops.

2 - The Heath and Grasslands

The Landa is a dense shrubland, whose height can be low or reach 4 feet. Its most abundant species are heather, gorse, and broom. The heath is considered a form of deciduous forest degradation or supraforestal vegetation. It is often used for animal bedding and then as fertilizer.

The meadows are herbaceous vegetation occupying large tracts of land with ocean views.

The Vegetation of the