Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Climate Feedbacks and Their Impact on Climate Change

Feedbacks within the climate system amplify climate changes initially caused by external factors. This can be visualized as:

• Initial climate forcing → Initial climate response → Response amplified

Example: An increase in heat energy sent to Earth by the Sun causes high-latitude snow and ice to retreat. This allows more sunlight to be absorbed by the Earth's surface, leading to further climatic warming (amplifying the changes underway). Another example is delayed bedrock rebound.

Negative Feedback Mechanisms in Climate Change

Initial climate changes can also lead to a reduced response:

• Initial climate forcing → Initial climate response → Response reduced

Example: Chemical weathering acts... Continue reading "Climate Change: Feedbacks, Processes, and History" »

Key Definitions in Hydrology and River Systems

River Features and Drainage Systems

River Channel: The bed and sides of a river form the river channel.

Drainage Basin: The area of land drained by a river.

Confluence: The point where a river and a tributary meet.

Tributary: A smaller river which joins a larger river.

Source: The starting point of a river.

Mouth: The end point of a river, where it enters the sea or a lake.

Watershed: A ridge of highland which determines to which drainage basin the water flows.

The Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle Processes)

Hydrological Cycle: The continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth (the water cycle).

Evaporation: The change in state from a liquid (such as water) to a gas (such as water... Continue reading "Essential Hydrology and River System Terminology" »

Understanding the Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a process in which thermal radiation emitted by the planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases and re-emitted in all directions.

Solutions to Mitigate the Greenhouse Effect

• Recycle paper.
• Decrease CO2 and methane emissions.
• Implement policies promoting sustainable resources in every country.
• Reduce the use of fossil fuels and use renewable fuels instead.
• Improve building infrastructure to use less energy and fewer non-renewable resources.

Changing Lifestyles for a Sustainable Future

• Only buy what is needed.
• Disconnect electronic equipment when leaving home.
• Conserve water.
• Consume fewer processed products.

Low-Shrinkage Crude Oil Properties

This crude oil type is characterized by quality lines that are closely spaced near the dewpoint curve in its phase diagram. The other associated properties of low-shrinkage crude oil include:

• Oil Formation Volume Factor: Less than 1.2 bbl/STB
• Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR): Less than 200 scf/STB
• Oil Gravity: Less than 35° API
• Color: Black or deeply colored

Volatile Crude Oil Characteristics

Volatile crude oil exhibits quality lines that are close together near the bubblepoint and become more widely spaced at lower pressures. This crude oil type is commonly characterized by a high liquid shrinkage immediately below the bubblepoint, as illustrated in Figure 1-7.

Other characteristic properties of volatile crude oil include:

• Oil

The Sun's Influence on Earth's Weather

The Sun plays a fundamental role in driving Earth's weather systems through various processes:

1. The Sun heats Earth unevenly, with polar regions receiving less direct warmth.
2. Earth's surface heats the air above it. Warm air rises, and colder air moves in to replace it, creating wind.
3. The Sun also warms the oceans, causing water to evaporate and form water vapor, a crucial atmospheric gas.
4. Water vapor mixes throughout the air, present even in areas far from large bodies of water.
5. As warm, moist air rises, it cools. This cooling causes water vapor to condense into tiny water droplets, forming clouds.
6. These tiny droplets can coalesce and grow, eventually falling as rain.
7. If atmospheric temperatures are sufficiently

Soil: A Vital Ecosystem

Soil is a complex ecosystem made up of minerals, organic material, gases, and liquids, which forms the habitat for many organisms. As part of the lithosphere, soil stores and transfers heat.

Soil System Components

Soil Particle Size

Particle size order from smallest to largest: Clay < Silt < Sand

Ensuring Soil Sustainability

• Fertile soil is a non-renewable resource.
• It cannot be replaced quickly.
• Practices like

Effects of Ozone Depletion

When the ozone layer is depleted, the ultraviolet radiations of the sun can reach the earth's surface in greater proportion. This results in damage to animal and plant life on the earth. Ultraviolet rays cause skin cancer and cataracts in human beings. The ozone hole is seen in the stratosphere above Antarctica.

Main Sources of Water Pollution

There are two main sources of water pollution: natural and manmade sources. They can be further categorized into various types. Mineral from land that are washed off due to heavy rains, dead animals, animal waste, ash, chemical after forest fires, sulfur compounds after an earthquake, etc. are natural sources of water pollution. City sewage and industrial waste are the manmade... Continue reading "Effects of Ozone Depletion, Water and Noise Pollution" »