Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Scientific Method

A method of procedure consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

Newton's Laws

1. Things stay in motion or at rest.
2. Force, mass, and acceleration are all related.
3. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

Key Scientific Concepts

Fusion

The process or result of joining two or more things together to form a single entity.

Fission

The action of dividing or splitting something into two or more parts.

Energy

The capacity for doing work.

Acid

Has a high concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺), greater than that of pure water.

Base

A basic solution has a low H⁺ concentration, less than that of pure water.

pH Scale

0-6 is acidic; 7 is neutral; 8-12 is basic.

Heat

The... Continue reading "Science Facts & Concepts: A Comprehensive Guide" »

The Formation of Minerals

The atoms will come apart, change themselves, and then form a new mineral.

Types of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are divided into two categories: foliated and non-foliated. Be able to determine which rock is foliated and which is not.

Foliated Rocks

Foliated rocks are patterned rocks where you can see changes in the rock.

Non-foliated Rocks

Non-foliated rocks are solid color rocks.

Size, Shape, Site, Shadow, Texture, Pattern, Association, Tone.

Understanding Maps

Map: A representation usually on a flat surface of the whole or a part of an area.

Scale: Map Scale = Map distance/Earth distance

Be able to give a U.S.P.L.S. description of certain features/locations.

From the left to the right.

R7E, T14S, Sec.1, NE, SW, SE.

Non-Renewable Energy Sources

The Theory of Plate Tectonics: Global Tectonic

This theory states that:

• The lithosphere is divided into plates that cover the Earth's surface and fit together like a puzzle.
• The internal geological activity (volcanoes and earthquakes) is located in the boundaries between the plates.
• The ocean bottoms are generated in the ridges, by the magma that comes from the mantle and are destroyed in the trenches by subduction.
• When the plates move, they drag the continents. Where the plates separate, an ocean is formed, and where they collide, mountain ranges are formed.

Wegener said that the continents were those that moved on the ocean floor. LITHOSPHERE = CRUST + UPPER MANTLE.

ASTENOSPHERE allows plates to move vertically/horizontally.

Plates move with respect... Continue reading "The Theory of Plate Tectonics: Global Tectonic and Plate Movements" »

TV and Movies

Cartoon

A movie made using characters that are drawn and not real.

Chat Show

A television or radio program in which people are asked questions about themselves.

Comedy

A funny movie or play.

Cookery Programme

A television genre that presents food preparation in a kitchen, located in a restaurant or on a studio set.

Documentary

A film or television program that gives facts about a real situation.

Drama

A play in a theatre or on television or radio.

Film

A story that is shown in moving pictures on a screen, usually at a cinema or on television.

Game Show

A program on television in which people play games to try to win prizes.

Reality Show

A television program about ordinary people who are filmed in real situations.

Soap

A television program about the... Continue reading "Vocabulary for TV, Movies, Geography, and the Environment" »

Acid Rain

The fuels used for locomotion and electricity generation emit sulfur and nitrogen oxides. These chemicals react with water in the clouds and produce acids.

Consequences:

• The soil and the water of lakes and rivers acidify.
• Trees and aquatic organisms become ill and can die.
• The acids attack and dissolve limestone.

Solutions:

• Decrease the consumption of fossil fuels.
• Eliminate the sulfur before using the fuel.
• Eliminate oxides before releasing them into the atmosphere.

Greenhouse Effect

The problem appears when the presence of carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor in the atmosphere is larger than normal. The abuse of fossil fuels is the source of carbon dioxide. Farts and escapes from underwater methane are the main sources.

Global Warming:

An... Continue reading "Environmental Problems and Solutions" »

Chapter 5: Coastal Waters: Estuaries and Seafloors (Pp. 67-85)

Estuary Characteristics

Estuaries are distinguished by:

• Salinity Variation:
• Turbidity:

Plankton's Ecological Importance

Plankton plays a vital role in various ecosystems:

• Estuaries: Plankton abundance supports diverse marine life, including shrimp, crabs, oysters, and fish.
• Ocean: Phytoplankton forms the base of the ocean's food web.
• Atmosphere: Diatoms, a type of phytoplankton, help regulate the Earth's climate by absorbing carbon dioxide.

Ecological Value of Marine Worms

Polychaete and oligochaete plumed worms are crucial food sources for numerous fish and bird species, supporting the intricate balance of marine ecosystems.

Mollusks of Florida Coral Reefs

Three major mollusk classes inhabit... Continue reading "Coastal Waters of Florida: Estuaries, Seafloors, and Seagrass Meadows" »

Evidence from Rocks About Life

Rocks are an important source of information about many forms of life that existed on this planet.

Why Can't Scientists Be Sure How Earth Was Created?

Because no rocks date to the formation of the Earth.

How Fossil Teeth Reveal an Animal's Diet

Size and shape indicate diet.

Explaining Relative Dating of Fossils

Sedimentary rocks form layers, with newer layers added on top of older layers. This does not tell scientists the exact age of the fossil; however, it does tell the scientist the fossil's age in relation to other fossils above or below it.

Common Radioactive Isotopes

Potassium-40 and Carbon-14 are two common radioactive isotopes.

What Is a Mass Extinction?

A mass extinction is when many organisms disappear from the... Continue reading "Unlocking Earth's History: Fossils, Rocks, and the Story of Life" »

SYSTEMS

Can be small or large, living or non-living.

Types: open, close and isolated

• Open: exchanges both energy and matter
• Close: only exchange energy
• Isolated: Energy and matter is not exchange

Transfer: Basic flow through a system. Change in location of energy or matter.

Transformation: A new product is created. Change of state.

First law or thermodynamics: energy in an isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed.

Second law or thermodynamics: is lost in the different levels of a system.

Entropy: is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system.

Negative feedback:

Positive feedback:

PRODUCTIVITY

Is the conversion of energy into biomass over a given period of time.

Biomass: is the living mass of an organism

Gross: total amount... Continue reading "Understanding Systems, Productivity, Global Warming, and Photochemical Smog" »