Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Hydroelectric Power Generation

Hydroelectric power generation is an alternative to fossil fuels that produces fewer greenhouse gases. It does not produce high quantities of greenhouse gases.

Global Climate Change Definition

Global climate change is defined as modifications in Earth's climate.

Cap-and-Trade Program

In a cap-and-trade program, industries must buy permits for their emissions.

Carbon-Based Fuels in the Lithosphere

Carbon-based fuels in the lithosphere have been slowly sequestered over many millions of years.

Positive Feedback Mechanism in Climate Change

Warmer temperatures result in the melting of permafrost, which may result in a positive feedback mechanism that would intensify climate change.

US Senate's Stance on Emission Reductions

The... Continue reading "Climate Change and Energy: Impacts and Solutions" »

Thematic map:

A geographic map that displays the spatial pattern of a theme or series of attributes.

Physical map:

It focuses on the geography of the area.

Equator:

A line equidistant from the poles that divides the Earth into southern and northern hemispheres.

Meridian:

A line of constant longitude passing through the Earth and the poles.

Parallel:

An imaginary line extending through the Earth parallel to the equator.

Tropic:

Regions of the Earth that lie roughly in the middle of the globe.

Latitude:

Geographic coordinate that specifies the north-south position of a point on the Earth's surface.

Longitude:

Geographic coordinate that specifies the east-west position of a point on the Earth's surface.

Geographical Coordinates:

Quantities of latitude... Continue reading "Understanding Earth's Geography: Key Terms and Definitions" »

Energy Sources and Their Environmental Impact

An energy source is any natural or non-natural system from which we can obtain energy in any form. That's because in our everyday life we use huge amounts of energy for factories, transport, and heating. Obtaining, producing, and consuming energy can have several impacts, usually negative, on the environment. This impact varies tremendously depending on which type of energy source we use: renewable or non-renewable.

Non-Renewable Energy Impacts

Non-renewable energy sources include fossil fuels and nuclear energy (fission). The use of these energy sources leads to several problems:

• Release of CO2: This comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The carbon dioxide increases the greenhouse effect and contributes

Geodynamic Model

The lithosphere is the outermost layer of the geosphere, composed of the crust and upper mantle. It is divided into plates with clearly defined boundaries coinciding with major landforms. The mesosphere is the largest part of the geosphere and corresponds to the part of the mantle that does not form part of the lithosphere. The core is the center of the planet, consisting of an outer core and an inner core.

Age of the Seabed

Research projects have established that the seabed is expanding slowly, with new lithosphere formed on either side of the ridge axis. Paleomagnetism and magnetometers have provided evidence for the Earth's magnetic field and the symmetrical distribution of paleomagnetism bands on the seabed.

Theory of Plate

Vocabulary

Pollution

Pollution is any substance added to the environment that negatively impacts the environment or its organisms.

Smog

Smog is a type of air pollution where gases from burning fossil fuels react with sunlight to form a fog.

Particulate Matter

Particulate matter consists of microscopic particles of dust, metal, and unburned fuels produced by industrial processes.

Acid Rain

Acid rain is precipitation with a decreased pH due to atmospheric pollutants. It contains elevated levels of hydrogen ions and is caused by sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions from factories and power stations.

Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is the natural warming process where gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere.... Continue reading "Understanding Pollution and the Water Cycle" »

Relative Dating Methods

Introduction

The optimistic view of intelligent extraterrestrial life often overlooks the improbable chain of events that led to human existence.

Special Timing

Our Sun formed late enough to have sufficient metallicity for creating a rocky, Earth-like planet. Older stars have even fewer metals than our Sun's 2%.

Special Location

The Sun resides in the "galactic habitable zone," extending 23,000 to 30,000 light-years from the galactic center. This zone, comprising only 7% of the galactic radius, contains less than 5% of the stars due to their concentration towards the core. While still containing numerous stars, this zone excludes the majority of stars in our galaxy. Most planetary systems are chaotic, lacking the stability Earth has provided for... Continue reading "The Rare Earth Hypothesis: Why Intelligent Extraterrestrial Life May Not Exist" »

Scientific Method

A method of procedure consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

Newton's Laws

1. Things stay in motion or at rest.
2. Force, mass, and acceleration are all related.
3. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

Key Scientific Concepts

Fusion

The process or result of joining two or more things together to form a single entity.

Fission

The action of dividing or splitting something into two or more parts.

Energy

The capacity for doing work.

Acid

Has a high concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺), greater than that of pure water.

Base

A basic solution has a low H⁺ concentration, less than that of pure water.

pH Scale

0-6 is acidic; 7 is neutral; 8-12 is basic.

Heat

The... Continue reading "Science Facts & Concepts: A Comprehensive Guide" »

The Formation of Minerals

The atoms will come apart, change themselves, and then form a new mineral.

Types of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are divided into two categories: foliated and non-foliated. Be able to determine which rock is foliated and which is not.

Foliated Rocks

Foliated rocks are patterned rocks where you can see changes in the rock.

Non-foliated Rocks

Non-foliated rocks are solid color rocks.

Size, Shape, Site, Shadow, Texture, Pattern, Association, Tone.

Understanding Maps

Map: A representation usually on a flat surface of the whole or a part of an area.

Scale: Map Scale = Map distance/Earth distance

Be able to give a U.S.P.L.S. description of certain features/locations.

From the left to the right.

R7E, T14S, Sec.1, NE, SW, SE.