Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

•What makes up a beach?

Whatever is locally available. This could be boulders, sand, mud, biological material. Whatever is near.

•What are the 3 different ways sand can move along the beach?

- Perpendicular via swash (up the beach) or backwash (goes back to the ocean)

- Parallel to the beach via longshore currents

•What is the difference between a summertime and wintertime beach?

Summertime beach has mostly swash and a wide sandy beach. Wintertime beach has a lot of wave activity so the beach is narrower and backwash dominates.

•What are the two major types of shores and their characteristics?

Erosional- California. Will see cliffs. Over two plates

Depositional- Miami. Will see barrier islands. Over a single plate.

•Which coast is experiencing... Continue reading "cgghjk;" »

1. Internal Geologic Agents

Internal geologic agents, such as the movements of lithospheric plates, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, shape the Earth's relief. The energy source that drives these processes is the heat stored inside the Earth. Evidence of this heat is the geothermal gradient, defined as the increase in temperature with depth. This heat originates from:

• The collision of planetesimals during the Earth's formation
• The disintegration of radioactive elements

2. Movement of Lithospheric Plates

From a dynamic perspective, the Earth can be divided into three layers:

• Lithosphere: The rigid outermost layer composed of the crust and a portion of the upper mantle (from 0 to 100 km).
• Mesosphere: The rest of the mantle, a semi-liquid layer.
• Endosphere:

Oil and Gas Well Cementing Fundamentals

Cementing is a critical process in oil and gas well construction, ensuring well integrity, safety, and efficient hydrocarbon production. It involves pumping a cement slurry down the wellbore to fill the annulus between the casing and the formation, or to plug zones within the well.

Key Functions of Well Cementing

In oil and gas wells, the primary functions of cement are crucial for well integrity and longevity:

1. Provide zonal isolation, preventing fluid migration between different formations.
2. Support the axial load of casing strings, ensuring their stability and preventing collapse.
3. Protect casing against corrosive fluids and external pressures from the formation.
4. Support the wellbore, enhancing its stability

Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion is a steady decline of about 4 percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's stratosphere. There is also a much larger springtime decrease in the stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole.

Causes of Ozone Depletion

The main cause of the ozone hole is man-made chemicals, especially man-made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-blowing agents (CFCs, HCFS, halons). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by wind. Once in the stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through photodissociation, which catalyze the breakdown of ozone (O₃) into oxygen (O₂).^[3] Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions... Continue reading "Ozone Depletion and the Greenhouse Effect" »

Project Description: Volcano Research and Model Building

This lesson enables students to research, create, and erupt their own volcano model. By investigating websites, volcano fact sheets, and other information sources, students should be able to plan and make a model that represents a real volcanic eruption and another that illustrates its internal structure.

They can then demonstrate their understanding of what a volcano is, its parts, the steps that lead up to a volcanic eruption, its history, and associated hazards by presenting their model and related information to the class.

This project gives each group a chance to become experts on a particular volcano and to understand natural phenomena, such as the stages of a volcanic eruption.

Academic

Florida's Aquifers

1. 150 to 70 million years ago (MYA), sediment formed on basement rock, becoming the bedrock (limestone and related rocks and shells).

2. 70-25 MYA: Various sea level fluctuations occurred during a major hot period, and sedimentation continued.

Biscayne Bay Aquifer

• Unconfined surficial aquifer
• Depth ranges from 0 feet in the west to 260 feet in the east

Floridian Aquifer

• Larger, deeper, and older than the Biscayne Bay Aquifer
• Confined in South Florida
• Unconfined in North Florida
• Saline water in South Florida

3. The Floridian Aquifer was formed between 150-25 MYA.

4. The Biscayne Bay Aquifer was formed between 2 MYA - 125,000 years ago (TYA).

• Pollution, seepage, and contamination
• Overuse (unnecessary wasting of water)

Coastal Water

1. Freshwater... Continue reading "Florida's Coastal Ecosystems: Aquifers, Marine Life, and Seagrass" »

Bangladesh River Flooding: 1998 Case Study

Geographical Context and Vulnerability

Bangladesh is formed by deposition from three major rivers: the Brahmaputra, the Ganges, and the Meghna. Sediment from these and over 50 other rivers forms one of the largest deltas in the world. Up to 80% of the country is located on this delta. As a result, much of the country is just a few meters above sea level and is highly vulnerable to flooding and rising sea levels.

Bangladesh is a densely populated country (an LEDC) with a high population growth rate (nearly 2.7% per annum). Almost all of Bangladesh’s rivers have their source outside of the country. For example, the drainage basin of the Ganges and Brahmaputra covers 1.75 million km² and includes the... Continue reading "Bangladesh River Floods: Causes, Impacts, and Mitigation (1998 Case Study)" »

explicar el modelo geodinámico, hacer un dibujo, explicar cada capa y nombrar las discontinuidades?

Global warming:

Nowadays it is difficult to open a newspaper without facing global warming.

This is a problem that is seriously affecting our planet.

First of all, I would like to say that one of the causes of this serious problem is the greenhouse effect, which is produced by carbon dioxide gases from human activities that are trapped in the atmosphere. As a consequence, it produces melting and increases the level of the sea.

Another aspect to consider is another effect of global warming, climate change, which in turn is the cause of the extinction of some species because they change the environmental conditions of their natural habitat.

To sum up, from my point of view, I think we should do everything possible to reduce global warming because... Continue reading "The Impact of Global Warming on Earth: Causes, Effects, and Solutions" »