Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geology

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Environmental Pollution and Energy Sources

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Environmental Pollution

The negative change of the characteristics of the environment is called Pollution /Clouds containing Sulphur oxides (SOx) produce acid rain/ The depletion that human activities are causing in some products is Exhaustion of raw materials/ The presence in soil of substances in concentrations sufficient to confer harmful, unhealthy or hazardous properties is the Land pollution/ The Sustainable development considers the improvement of living conditions along with the stable ecological balance at the local, regional and global maintenance/ The substance that is opaque to ultraviolet (UV) light, and it blocks about 96% of the UV light that comes from the sun isOzone/ A land-fill site is A big hole that we make in ground to

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Well Logging Techniques: Gamma Ray, Caliper, and Resistivity

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Well Logging in Petroleum Fields

Well logs are used to measure the physical and chemical properties of rocks, especially sedimentary rocks in petroleum fields.

Gamma Ray Logs

Gamma ray logs measure natural radioactivity in formations. This measurement is used for identifying lithologies and correlating zones.

Uses of Gamma Ray Logs:

  • Identify lithologies
  • Correlate between formations
  • Calculate volume of shale

Caliper Logs

A caliper log is a well logging tool that measures the size and shape of a borehole along its depth. It can indicate cave or shale swelling in the borehole.

Uses of Caliper Logs:

  1. Contributory information for lithological assessment.
  2. Indicator of good permeability and porosity zones (reservoir rock) due to development of mudcake in association
... Continue reading "Well Logging Techniques: Gamma Ray, Caliper, and Resistivity" »

Cold air pool atpl

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Geological agents id the hard weather that shapes landforms.

Warm, cold: The movement of air and water transfers heat from warm areasto cold areas. This produces convection current.

The water cycle: 1.Water from rivers and lakes are evaporated by the sun, it is also reponsible for the water realased during transpiratuion of plants(evotranspiration) .2 When water vapour condenses into clouds are formed. 3. The wind moves the clouds towards interior of continents. 4. The clouds produced precipitations in ther form of rain or snow. 5. That precipitations that colects in glaciars rivers and lakes, then the water continues its journey towards the ocean. 6. When it rains overland the water cycle contributes to geological agents.

Petroleum Sources: Kerogen Types and Their Significance

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Sources of Petroleum

Petroleum originates from a small fraction of the organic matter deposited in sedimentary environments.

“Source Rock”

The typical “source rock” contains 99% mineral matter and 1% organic matter. The organic matter is composed of 90% kerogen and 10% bitumens.

This organic matter is usually a combination of marine- and terrestrially-derived organic matter (plant) and zooplankton (animal), which constitutes more than 95% of the life in the oceans.

Terrestrial organisms are mainly wind-blown spores and pollen, along with some woody debris from rivers and swamps.

All living matter is composed of four main constituents: lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lignins.

Kerogen Types

1. Type I Kerogen

This type of kerogen has a high... Continue reading "Petroleum Sources: Kerogen Types and Their Significance" »

Biodiversity, Conservation, and Environmental Issues: A Comprehensive Guide

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Biodiversity

Biodiversity = Number, variety and variability of Earth’s organisms (of plants and animals)

Levels of Biodiversity

  1. Genetic Diversity - The genetic variety within all populations of that species.

  2. Species Richness - The number of species

  3. Ecosystem Diversity - The variety of ecosystem found on earth. Ex, The forests, prairies, deserts, coral reefs, lakes

Endangerment and Extinction

Species of imminent danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.

The death of the last individual of a species.

Leading Causes of Endangerment and Extinction

  • -land use of biodiversity hotspots(biggest contributor to species loss)
  • -The introduction of a foreign species into an ecosystem from  which it did not evolve.
  • -Overexploitation:
... Continue reading "Biodiversity, Conservation, and Environmental Issues: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Air law

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Dear editor,


i'm writting about my concern relating to Deforestation in my area. In my opinion , i think it's dangerous.


Firstlly,  they Belive that cutting the trees will grow immediately,  but it isn't. Secondly, when they cut the Trees the animals are homeless and many species became extinct. Thirdly , can Cause changes in climate. Having fewer forest means emit more amount of Greenhouse gases. Plants and animals balances out the amount of oxygen And carbon dioxide in the air. Plants take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen While, on the other hand, animals take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Deforestation can unbalance the cycle by killing trees and other plants. 

if more people write about suggestions , we will have a better service.... Continue reading "Air law" »

Understanding Plate Boundaries and Their Impact

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Types of Plate Boundaries

1) Constructive or Divergent Boundaries

Two plates move apart from each other. New magma rises to the surface, cools, and forms basalt, creating volcanoes and rift valleys.

2) Destructive or Convergent Boundaries

Two plates move towards each other. Typically, an oceanic plate sinks below the other in a subduction zone. Sediments between the plates fold, forming mountain ranges. Friction melts rocks, causing volcanoes and earthquakes.

3) Conservative Boundaries

Two plates slide against each other, often at different speeds. Stress buildup leads to sudden movements and friction, resulting in earthquakes.

Negative Impacts on People

Earthquakes

Earthquake shockwaves damage buildings, bridges, and roads, causing injuries and fatalities.... Continue reading "Understanding Plate Boundaries and Their Impact" »

Understanding Earth's Atmosphere and Climate Change

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Composition of Earth's Atmosphere

  • Nitrogen (78%)
  • Oxygen (20%)
  • Argon (1%)

Greenhouse Gases

Examples: H2O, CO2, CH4, NO2, O3

Importance: Without greenhouse gases, Earth's temperature would be -22 to -36 degrees Celsius.

Greenhouse Effect

Solar energy absorbed by Earth and re-radiated as heat by greenhouse gases.

  1. Natural Greenhouse Effect
  2. Human-Induced Greenhouse Effect (Global Warming)

Global Warming / Climate Change

Caused by burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and human activities that increase carbon dioxide levels, leading to Earth's warming.

Ozone, Hole in Ozone, UV Rays, CFCs

Ozone

Located mostly in the lower stratosphere, it acts as a shield against harmful UV radiation from the sun.

Hole in the Ozone Layer

Causes: Primarily caused by human-made chemicals... Continue reading "Understanding Earth's Atmosphere and Climate Change" »

Coastal Erosion: Processes, Landforms, and Examples

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Coastal Erosion

Factors Influencing Wave Size and Energy

The size and energy of a wave are influenced by:

  • How long the wind has been blowing
  • The strength of the wind
  • The fetch (the distance the wind blows over the surface of the water)

Rate of Coastline Erosion

The rate of coastline erosion is influenced by:

  • Type of rock (e.g., chalk and limestone form steep cliffs)
  • Strength of waves
  • Speed of waves

Destructive Waves

Destructive waves are created in storm conditions. They are characterized by:

  • Being created from big, strong waves when the wind is powerful and has been blowing for a long time
  • Occurring when wave energy is high and the wave has traveled over a long fetch
  • Eroding the coast
  • Having a stronger backwash than swash
  • Having a short wavelength and being
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Volcanoes: Plate Tectonics, Lava Composition, and Hazards

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Volcanoes

Scenario: Consider a geographic location for a volcano. What type of plate setting is it located in? What kind of volcano is it (composite, dome, or shield)? What kind of lava does it produce (rhyolite, andesite, or basalt)? Is the lava predominantly silicate, feldspar, or ferromagnesian? Why? Is the lava felsic, mafic, or a combination in origin? Why? Describe the characteristics of a volcanic eruption.

Plate Tectonics:

  • Divergent (mid-ocean ridges = volcanoes)
  • Rift zones = volcanoes
  • Subduction zones = volcanoes
  • Hot spots = volcanoes

Lava

Composition:

  • Result of the geologic setting, which determines available source material.
  • Extent of melting, which determines what becomes the source material.
  • A mix of SiO4, Al, Fe, Mg.
  • Rich in SiO4: more felsic
... Continue reading "Volcanoes: Plate Tectonics, Lava Composition, and Hazards" »