Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Well Cementing: Primary and Remedial Operations

Primary Cementing

Primary cementing is the process of placing a cement sheath in the annulus between the casing and the formation. Its objectives include:

• Removing drilling fluid from the casing interior and borehole
• Placing a cement slurry in the annulus
• Filling the casing interior with a displacement fluid (e.g., drilling fluid, brine, water)

A bottom plug separates the cement slurry from the drilling fluid, while a top plug separates it from the displacement fluid. The bottom plug ruptures upon landing at the casing string's bottom, allowing the cement slurry to flow into the annulus.

Remedial Cementing

Remedial cementing occurs after primary cementing to inject cements into strategic well locations... Continue reading "Well Cementing: Primary and Remedial Operations for Well Integrity" »

The Ideal Soil for Farming: Loam

The best type of soil for farming is loam. Its balanced composition of sand and clay particles creates both large and small pore spaces. This structure provides an ideal environment for plant growth by:

• Ensuring a steady supply of air and water.
• Retaining moisture while allowing excess water to drain, preventing waterlogging.

Loamy soils are also rich in nutrients due to their clay content and are relatively easy to work with. Their pH level typically falls between 5.5 and 8.0, making them suitable for a wide range of crops.

Sandy Soils: The Hungry Type

In contrast to loam, sandy soils are often described as “hungry” because their large particle size and loose structure lead to:

• Rapid drainage, resulting in nutrient

The Seismic Method

An indirect method of study that looks at the variations in the propagation speed of seismic waves as they travel through different materials inside the geosphere.

What are Seismic Waves?

Vibrations generated inside the Earth at the point where an earthquake takes place. They propagate in all directions, and the more rigid the material they pass through, the more quickly they travel. There are three types:

• P waves: Cause the material to vibrate, alternating between compression and dilation. These waves propagate through solids and liquids.
• S waves: Cause the material to oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation. They are slower and cannot travel through liquids.
• Surface waves: Generated when P and S waves reach the

Key Concepts in Geology

(exam3)1:superposition=the oldest on the bottom, youngest on top/2:original horizontality=sedimentary layers/lava flows are deposited as flat layers/3:lateral continuity=rocks extend in all directions until they reach the edge of a basin or pinch out/4:cross-cutting=faults and fractures are younger than the rocks they cut through/5:unconformities=missing time/6:inclusions=chunks of weathered rock are older than the rock they are contained in/7:continental drift=Alfred Wegener/8:Alfred Wegener=Pangaea/9:not a major tectonic plate/Juan de Fuca Plate/10: lithosphere=composed of crust and upper mantle/11:continental crust=composed of granite and basalt/12:transform boundary=one colliding plate will be forced because of difference... Continue reading "Understanding Geology: Key Concepts and Terms" »

Mooring Line

A rope or wire used to make a ship fast to a quayside.

Traffic Separation Scheme

A routing measure aimed at separating opposing streams of traffic by appropriate means and establishing traffic lanes.

Liferaft

A small, inflatable watercraft without a motor, carried for emergency evacuation in the event of a disaster aboard a ship.

Immersion Suit

A special type of waterproof dry suit that protects the wearer from hypothermia from immersion in cold water after abandoning a sinking or capsized vessel, especially in the open ocean.

Lifeboat

A small, rigid watercraft fitted with a motor, carried for emergency evacuation in the event of a disaster aboard a ship.

Island

A land mass, especially one smaller than a continent, entirely surrounded by... Continue reading "Essential Maritime Terms: Safety and Navigation Rules" »

Igneous:form.Melting Magma(surface),Lava:magma extruded to surface,Granite&Basalt. Intrusive(below surf pluton-100km2batholith)Extrusive(above surf)90% crust,Jointing-parallel cracks,Exfoliation-peel-off.(Ex.Dome)

Sedimentary:compounds settling(weathering,compaction,cementation-Limestone&SandStone)strata=layers,Clastic sediments=transported water,wind,ice,grav.Chemical sediments=minerals dissolved solution.

Metamorphic:altering processes(heat&pressure)Harder,compression, crushed,cooked,shear and stress.Ex:Marble,Gneiss,slate.Foliated=texture distinct wavy lines of min. Plate tectonics:adrift cause convection currents in upper mantle 6cm/y,Pangae=allEarth-225mil y Triassic Period,Tectonic=building-constr.Sea-floor-spreading-64miKm... Continue reading "Comparing the surface wind to the 3000ft wind:" »

1. Non-Ferrous Metals and Their Alloys

1.1 General Non-Ferrous Metals

• Medium Melting Temperature: Cu, Ni
• Low Melting Temperature: Zn, Cd

1.2 Light Metals

• Medium Melting Temperature: Al, Mg, Be
• Low Melting Temperature: Li, Na

1.3 Noble (Precious) Metals

• Medium Melting Temperature: Ag, Au
• High Melting Temperature: Ru

1.4 High Melting Temperature Metals

• BCC Lattice: W, Ta
• HCP Lattice: Ti, Zr

1.5 Rare Earth Metals

• Trace Metals: Sc, Y, La
• Lanthanides: Ce, Pr

1.6 Radioactive Metals, Transuranides, and Transactinides

• Naturally Occurring Radioactive Metals: Po, Fr
• Transuranides and Actinides: Np, Pu
• Transactinides and Superactinides: Rf, Db

Metal Purity Levels:

• Raw Metal: 3-5% of impurities
• Technically Pure Metal: Up to 1% of impurities (fluxing)
• Electrolytically Refined

Proctor Compaction Test

1. Obtain air-dry soil on which the compaction test is to be conducted.

2. Sieve the soil.

3. Add enough water.

4. Determine the weight of the Proctor mold + base plate.

5. Attach the extension to the top of the mold.

6. Pour the moist soil into the mold in three equal layers.

7. Remove the top attachment from the mold.

8. Using a straight edge, trim the excess soil above the mold.

9. Determine the weight of the mold + base plate +- compacted moist soil in the mold, W2 (lb).

10. Remove the base plate from the mold. Using a jack, extrude the compacted soil cylinder from the mold.

11. Take a moisture can and determine its mass, W3 (g).

12. From the moist soil extruded in Step 10, collect a moisture sample in the moisture can (Step... Continue reading "Proctor Compaction Test Procedure and Equipment" »

Sunspot

The most visible manifestation of solar activity.

Solar Activity

All the sunspots, bursting events, and associated phenomena.

Solar Cycle

The nearly periodic 11-year change in solar activity (i.e., changes in the number of sunspots, flares, and other associated manifestations).

Wolf Number

A measure of the amount of sunspots, used to quantify solar activity.

Solar Wind

Solar material flowing into interplanetary space; the Sun's atmosphere expanding radially outwards in all directions.

Climate Change

A change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns.

Weather

The state of the atmosphere at any given place and time.

Climate

The average (mean) of weather parameters over a long period of time.

Meteoroid

A small rocky or metallic body traveling... Continue reading "Essential Astronomical and Meteorological Definitions" »

The Wilson Cycle: Earth's Dynamic Plate Movement

The Wilson Cycle describes the cyclical opening and closing of ocean basins and the fragmentation and reassembly of continents through plate tectonic processes. It typically involves several stages:

1. Continental Fragmentation and Rift Formation

   Plate dynamics generate tension that can cause a large continental mass to fracture along an axis. As the separation of plates continues, the lithosphere sinks, forming an intercontinental rift valley.

2. Formation of an Expanding Ocean

   If the rift is near a sea, the valley will flood, and a narrow sea will be formed. As the plates continue to separate, a mid-ocean ridge develops along the center, and new oceanic lithosphere expands.

3. Ocean Reduction and Continental