Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Electronics

Unit Commitment in Power Systems

Unit commitment is the process of selecting the generating units that will supply the load of a system over a period of time at minimum cost, as well as provide a specified margin of operating reserve. The total load on the system will generally be higher during the day and lower during the night. It is not economical to run all the available units all the time. The cost of the system can be saved by turning off units when they are not needed.

Need for Unit Commitment

• Enough units will be committed to supply the system load.
• To reduce loss or fuel cost.
• By running the most economic unit, the load can be supplied by the unit operating closer to its best efficiency.

Constraints in Unit Commitment

Constraints that must... Continue reading "Power System Unit Commitment Fundamentals" »

Common English Questions

• Is it Sunday today? / What day is it today? - No, it isn't on. It's off.
• Is the power on? / How is the power? - No, it isn't on, it's off.
• What is your job? - I am an IT engineer.
• What is their name? - They are called Bolts.
• What size cards do you need? - 85 millimeters by 55 millimeters.
• What is your address and postal code? - c/Pepe numero pedo, CP 1111.
• When do you want them? - Friday, please.
• What is your telephone number? - It is 04935380.
• How old are they? - They both are 40 years old.
• What is your mail address? - It is [email protected].
• Do you live in Ciudad Real? - No, we don't, we live in the south of Spain.

Describing Objects: What Do They Have?

• John has the spanners - What does John have?
• The students have a holiday

**Enhancing Bilingual Education: Connecting L1 and Target Language**

**The Interconnectedness of Languages**

The assumption that "students' languages should be kept separate" is incorrect because it overlooks the natural connections between a learner's first language (L1) and the target language (TL). It is impossible to completely separate these languages as they are interconnected in the brain. Therefore, teachers should actively promote this connection.

Lambert, Tucker, and Cummins emphasize the importance of extensive communicative interaction and comprehensible input in the TL. While creating separate spaces for each language is beneficial, it is equally crucial to establish a shared space that fosters language awareness and cross-language... Continue reading "Enhancing Bilingual Education: Connecting L1 and Target Language" »

Functions of Language

Language is always used with a specific purpose or function, such as to inform, ask, answer, or promise.

Representative or Referential Function

Focuses on the message content, i.e., the objective transmission of information.

Expressive Function

Dominates messages where the sender conveys emotions, feelings, or experiences.

Appellative or Conative Function

Appears in messages seeking the receiver's attention and a response. It's about what words do or make happen.

Metalinguistic Function

The important aspect is the code itself, i.e., language used to discuss language.

Phatic or Contact Function

Its purpose is to check that the communication channel is working correctly.

Poetic Function

Highlights the form of the message.

Text Adequacy

Understanding Sentence Structure

Subject and Predicate

Subject: The subject of a sentence, often a nominal phrase, consists of a determiner (det), a noun (cn), and can include a proper noun (sn). It agrees in gender and number with the predicate.

Predicate: The predicate contains the verb, which links the subject to its attributes. It can include a copulative verb or a verbal predicate. The core of the predicate is the verb, and it may be accompanied by complements.

Predicate Attributes

Attributive Predicate: Introduced by a copulative verb (like 'be' or 'appear to be'), it completes the subject. It's often an adjective that agrees in gender and number with the subject. Copulative verbs primarily provide information about the state of being.

Predicative

Academic English

Academic English refers to the oral, written, auditory, and visual proficiency required to learn and communicate effectively in schools and academic programs, where English is used as a vehicular language.

Academic English is usually formal in tone, it has an advanced vocabulary and impersonal style. We avoid contractions or shortened forms of verbs. We avoid personal pronouns. We may use passive forms and academic vocabulary.

• EFL - English as a Foreign Language (in England)
• ESL - English as a Secondary Language (in Spain)
• ELF - English Lingua Franca
• EMI - English as a Medium of Instruction

Understanding Genres in Academic English

A genre is a class of communicative events, the members of which share a communicative purpose. John Swales... Continue reading "Academic English: Oral and Written Communication" »

Transportation Vocabulary

• At the wheel/Al Volante: Driving
• Cruising/Conducir tranquilamente: Driving peacefully
• To lean/Recolzar-se: To rest on
• To whisper/Xiuxiuejar: To speak softly
• To cuddle/Abraçar: To hug
• Take a stroll/Donar un tom: To go for a walk
• Unfasten/Descordar: To unbuckle
• Safety belt/Cinturó: Seatbelt
• Calaboose/Cotxe: Jail cell
• Hold a grudge/Sentir rabia, frustració: To feel resentment
• Wouldn't budge/No hi havia manera que sortís: Refused to move
• Commuter/People who travel every day from home to work: Someone who travels daily for work
• Challenge/Desafio, reto: A difficult task
• Pedestrian/Peató: A person walking
• Rush hour/Hora punta: Time of day with heavy traffic
• To be pleased/Satisfer: To be satisfied
• It is estimated that/Es considera que:

Defining Language and Speech

Language is the human ability to communicate through signs, whether oral or written. It is a system of signs that speakers learn and retain in their memory. As a shared code, it is known to each speaker and used whenever needed.

In contrast, speech is the individual act of translating this linguistic system into a concrete message. It is a singular, voluntary act by which a person encodes a specific message, selecting the necessary code, signs, and rules from the shared linguistic model.

Levels of Language

The Vulgar Level

Characterized by limited vocabulary and often used by individuals with less formal education.

Features:

• Limited vocabulary.
• Short, often incomplete sentences.
• Frequent use of slang.
• Disorganized messages,

Defining Literacy

Literacy has traditionally been described as the ability to read and write at a level suitable for communication, which implies understanding and communicating ideas in a literate society. It is a concept claimed and defined by a range of different theoretical fields. Key components include:

• Phonemic awareness
• Decoding
• Fluency
• Comprehension
• Vocabulary

The Phonics Method for Reading Instruction

Phonics is a method of teaching reading. It involves teaching letter-sound correspondences, enabling learners to translate letters into sounds and then blend the sounds together to pronounce words.

This method is particularly appropriate at the very beginning of children's schooling.

The strategies used to teach reading with this method are:

• Identifying