Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Electronics

• Automation: A set of elements that performs actions based on information from their sensors, without the intervention of a human.

• Robot: A programmable machine that can perform various tasks with mobile elements that follow trajectories previously drawn or decided by the robot based on data provided by onboard sensors.

• Control System: The component responsible for controlling and directing the actions of the robot. The electronic systems are complex and include one or more computers. By introducing computer programs, the actions of the robot are controlled.

• Open Loop: A system for which the automated exit has no influence on its behavior and has no feedback.

• Feedback Loop: Automatic variables that capture the atmosphere and... Continue reading "Understanding Automation and Robotics: Key Concepts Explained" »

Telecommunications: Distance Communication

Transmission Channels

Transmission channels are the physical support through which the encoded message flows. They can be:

• Guided: Driving waves through a physical path.
• Unguided: Only allows the transmission of waves.

Types of Guided Transmission Channels:

• Cable Pairs: Consists of two wires of conductive material, usually copper, coated with an insulating material (urban telephony).
• Coaxial Cable: Composed of two concentric conductors separated by an insulator. It achieves high transmission speeds for large distances (TV).
• Optical Fiber: Consists of fibers that transmit light signals. It allows sending data more rapidly than cable pairs or coaxial cable. It is lighter but has the disadvantage of being more

Bandwidth Transmitted by the Voice Channel

Band transmitted by the voice channel. The telephone system does not transmit all frequencies between the audible range of 20Hz and 20kHz, as this would require excessive bandwidth. To determine the bandwidth used, the parameter of intelligibility, the logatoms, is used. 80% intelligibility is sufficient, which corresponds to transmitting frequencies below 2,100Hz or above 1,500Hz.

Transmission Line Conductors

The transmitted signal is alternating and consists of the sum of signals with different frequencies within the band of 300Hz to 3,400Hz. A pure 800Hz tone is used for testing.

Primary Parameters of a Transmission Line

These parameters can be measured directly in a section of a transmission line one... Continue reading "Understanding Telephony: Bandwidth, Transmission Lines, and Sound" »

Understanding and Mastering Vocabulary

Learning and knowing vocabulary is critical for communication because it multiplies the possibilities of understanding and expression, both in oral and written language.

The cognitive processes involved in learning are complex. The acquisition and use of vocabulary are optimized not only through formal learning but also through different experiences and educational materials. Vocabulary becomes fixed in our memory when it is needed and used – the more we hear and read it. A general objective of education is to expand the lexicon, focusing on the characteristics and functioning of words as units in all their dimensions, and establishing criteria for use and acquisition in relation to the communicative situation.... Continue reading "Mastering Vocabulary for Effective Communication" »

Document Management Overview: Effective document management saves an organization time and resources by ensuring that documents are stored, sorted, and easily referenced.
Functions: Store, sort, and order documents to ensure rapid localization and easy reference.
Class: Degree of Autonomy: Centralized and Decentralized.
Advantages (Centralized): Saves space, equipment, and personnel; applies a single system for all documents; standard equipment can be used; easy to adapt to various needs; sophisticated systems can be implemented.
Disadvantages: Classification systems may not be the best for all documents, as delays can occur if someone has the document, leading to time spent searching through many files.
According to Use: Active (consulted... Continue reading "Effective Document Management Strategies for Organizations" »

Vocabulary Acquisition and Usage in the Classroom

1. The Dictionary: An Indispensable Tool

The dictionary is a crucial element in acquiring necessary vocabulary. It makes students aware of the possibilities afforded by consultation. It's an indispensable tool for learning vocabulary and language in general, and it should always be present in the classroom. It provides the student with a high degree of autonomy. It is essential to know how to handle it properly, and we must not abuse its capabilities.

2. Vocabulary Games: Engaging and Effective

Word games, misunderstandings, and jokes are common in everyday language and are part of our popular cultural heritage. They serve to teach how to use a word at the right time and to practice mental agility... Continue reading "Vocabulary Acquisition and Teaching Resources" »

Transistors

Transistors
NPN and PNP transistors function as amplifiers or switches. They are used to amplify, control, and stabilize electrical signals. There are two main types: Bipolar and Single pole. Transistors are formed of P-type and N-type materials. The three legs are: emitter, base, and collector.

Operation of an NPN Transistor

If the base-emitter junction is forward biased, the transistor works in the active region. Electrons from the emitter are repelled by the negative pole and move towards the positive pole. When they reach the base, some are attracted, forming the base current (IB). The rest are attracted to the positive collector, forming the collector current (IC). The emitter current (IE) is the sum of the base and collector currents:... Continue reading "Transistors, Amplifiers, and Electronic Components" »

Understanding Electric Current

Electric current is the flow or passage of electric charge, typically electrons, along a conductor. This flow is driven by a potential difference (voltage) often created by a power generator.

The conventional direction of current is considered from a higher potential (positive pole) to a lower potential (negative pole), although electrons actually move in the opposite direction (from negative to positive).

Electric Power Generators

These are devices that create an electrical current by maintaining a potential difference between the ends of a conductor.

Cells and Batteries (Chemical Generators)

These devices produce direct current (DC) electricity from chemical reactions. They are composed of two elements called electrodes... Continue reading "Electric Current: Sources, Generation, and Power" »

Oraciones impersonales: tipos

Gramaticalizadas

Se construyen con los verbos haber y hacer en 3ª persona del singular, y el verbo ser en 3ª persona del plural.

Unipersonales

Se refieren a fenómenos naturales, atmosféricos, etc. El verbo va en 3ª persona del singular.

Eventuales

Se usan porque el sujeto se desconoce o no interesa expresarlo. El verbo va en 3ª persona del plural.

Reflejas

Se construyen con el pronombre se y un verbo en 3ª persona del singular.

Tipos de predicado verbal

Transitivo

Requiere Complemento Directo (CD).

Intransitivo

No lleva CD, pero puede llevar otros complementos.

Reflexivo

El sujeto realiza y recibe la acción. Se construye con los pronombres: me, te, se, nos, os, se.

Recíproco

Indica una acción intercambiada entre dos o... Continue reading "Spanish Sentence Types and Structures Explained" »

This document details an experiment to understand the listening experience using a telephone receiver capsule.

Experiment Setup

We used a telephone receiver capsule (voice-call) with a signal generator and an oscilloscope. The connections were made as follows:

• Connect the oscilloscope CH1 tip to the telephone capsule terminal.
• Connect the oscilloscope black reference to the signal generator output.
• Connect the signal generator red claw to the same terminal as the oscilloscope tip on the capsule.
• Connect the signal generator negative grip to the other end of the capsule and the oscilloscope.

The oscilloscope is used to analyze the wave and determine the frequency our ears can perceive. By varying the frequency, we can find the minimum audible frequency.... Continue reading "Analyzing Audio Frequencies with Oscilloscope and Telephone Capsule" »