Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Chemistry

Foundations of Atomic Theory

Early Concepts of Matter

Democritus (5th Century BC): Proposed that atoms are indivisible particles.

Renaissance (16th Century): This era marked the beginning of scientific observation based on experimentation and measurement.

Boyle and Dalton: Robert Boyle defined the chemical element. John Dalton was the first to gather experimental data to develop a comprehensive theory on the subject.

Avogadro: Pioneered the study of gases, leading to significant insights into molecular behavior.

States of Matter

General Properties of Matter

Matter possesses mass and occupies volume, presenting in three key states:

Liquid State

• Possesses fixed mass and volume.
• Adapts its shape to the container.
• The forces maintaining the particles allow

Understanding Acid Rain: Causes & Impacts

Global Impact of Acid Rain

Each year, acid rain causes hundreds of millions of dollars in damages to buildings and monuments worldwide. Some chemists use the term "leprosy of the stones" to describe the severe corrosion of rocks caused by acid rain. Beyond infrastructure, acid rain is also profoundly harmful to vegetation and aquatic life. There are many well-documented cases illustrating how acid rain has destroyed farmland and forests, leading to the death of aquatic organisms.

Chemical Causes of Acid Rain

The average pH of rainfall in the northwestern United States is 4.3. Given that atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is in equilibrium with rainwater, one would not expect its pH to be less than 5.5.... Continue reading "Acid Rain: Environmental Damage & Solutions" »

Types of Materials

Materials are substances whose properties make them useful for the fabrication of structures, machinery, and other products.

Material Classification Groups

Materials are typically classified into groups:

• Metals and Alloys (e.g., iron, steel, aluminum)
• Polymers (e.g., nylon, polyurethane)
• Ceramics and Glass (e.g., alumina, magnesia)
• Composite Materials (e.g., wood, cermets)

Material Properties

Key material properties include:

• Chemical Properties
• Physical Properties
• Mechanical Properties
• Aesthetic and Economic Properties
• Fabrication Properties

Chemical Properties

Chemical properties include behavior related to oxidation and corrosion.

Oxidation

Oxidation occurs when a material combines with oxygen, forming oxides.

Corrosion

Corrosion is a form... Continue reading "Understanding Material Properties and Classes" »

Understanding Chemical Oxides

Binary combinations between oxygen and all other chemical elements except the noble gases and fluorine.

Formulating Oxides

Oxides have the following general formula: X₂O_n, where:

• X is the symbol of the other element.
• 2 corresponds to the valence of oxygen.
• O is the symbol for oxygen.
• n is the valence of the other element (metal or nonmetal).

Naming Oxides: Three Classifications

Oxides are named using three classifications: Traditional, Systematic, and Stock.

Traditional Nomenclature for Oxides

Basic Oxides: These result from the combination of oxygen and a metal.

• If the metal has a single valence, the oxide is named "Oxide" followed by the name of the metal.

Examples:

• CaO: Calcium Oxide
• Na₂O: Sodium Oxide

• If the metal has two

Laws of Melting

When a pure substance melts, it exhibits specific behaviors:

1. It melts at a specific temperature, called the melting point.
2. While melting, the temperature remains constant, even with the coexistence of solid and liquid phases.
3. All pure liquids, when sufficiently cooled, solidify at the same temperature at which they melt.
4. During solidification, the temperature remains constant.

Melting Point and Solidification

The melting and solidification points of a pure substance are characteristic properties that can be used to identify it.

A substance whose temperature varies during a state change cannot be considered a pure substance.

Vaporization

Vaporization is the change of state from liquid to vapor (or gas). It can occur in two ways: boiling... Continue reading "Understanding Changes of State: Melting, Boiling, and Sublimation" »

Biomolecules and Bioelements: Fundamental Definitions

Biomolecules are compounds (molecules) that are part of living systems. They are classified into two main kinds: inorganic and organic.

Bioelements (or biogenic elements) are the simple substances (elements) that make up biomolecules.

Key Properties of Aqueous Solutions

Molecular Polarity and pH Regulation

• Dipole: Any substance that exhibits a skewed distribution of its electrical charges, generating a negative pole and a positive pole.
• Polar Character: The property of a substance that possesses an electric dipole.
• pH: The negative logarithm (changed sign) of the concentration of hydrogen ions ($H^+$).
• Hydronium Ion ($H_3O^+$): The ionized form of water.
• Buffer System: A substance or group of substances

Properties of Matter

Characteristic and General Properties

There are some characteristic properties which allow us to identify substances (e.g., density, conductivity, color) and some general properties common to all types of matter (e.g., mass, volume, temperature).

Pure Substances

Types of Pure Substances

A pure substance is a form of matter with a constant composition that does not change regardless of physical conditions. Pure substances are categorized into two main types:

Compounds

Compounds are pure substances that can be chemically decomposed into simpler substances.

Elements

Elements are pure substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by any chemical or physical procedure.

Examples of Pure Substances

• Compounds: Distilled water,

Since antiquity, attempts were made to understand matter by dividing it into its tiny parts. The Greeks called these tiny, allegedly invisible parts of matter 'atoms'.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

In 1808, John Dalton took the ideas of the Greeks and further developed them into a comprehensive theory. Key definitions and postulates from his theory include:

• Matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms.
• An element is a substance composed of identical atoms.
• A compound is a substance formed by atoms of two or more different elements combined in fixed ratios.

It is important to note that Dalton believed atoms were indivisible, a concept later disproven by the discovery of subatomic particles.

The Electrical Nature of Matter

Experiments can easily demonstrate... Continue reading "Unraveling the Atom: From Ancient Ideas to Modern Structure" »

Metola Analytical Applications and Advantages

Elective electrodes offer diverse applications across various sectors:

• Environmental Monitoring

  Monitoring of earth, air, and water quality.

• Biotechnology

  Applications in fish farms, marine environments, and hydroponics.

• Food and Beverages

  Analysis of milk, sauces, beverages, meats, preserves, and more.

• Pharmacy and Cosmetics

  Quality control for cosmetics, gels, shampoos, creams, deodorants, etc.

General Petrochemical and Chemical Analysis

Metola electrodes enable precise measurements for a wide range of parameters:

• Direct Concentration Measurements

  • Anions and cations: Ammonium, ammonia in seawater and sewage; cyanates and cyanides in water and sewage; chlorine and chloride in wastewater, drinking water, and