Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Chemistry

Gas Laws

Boyle's law: For a gas at constant temperature, the product of pressure and volume is constant. P1 · V1 = P2 · V2 = P3 · V3.

Gay-Lussac / Charles's law

At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature (in Kelvin). The relationship is expressed as:

V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

Note: Celsius temperatures are converted to Kelvin by adding 273.15 (historically approximated as 273). For small temperature changes near 0 °C, the historical approximation 1/273 was often used to relate incremental volume change per degree Celsius to the initial volume.

Solutions and Concentration Formulas

Common concentration expressions and relations:

• Mass percent (w/w): mass% solute = m_s / m_total × 100
• Percent by volume (v/v): % solute

Fundamental Chemistry Concepts

Atomic Structure & Quantum Numbers

• The mass of a proton is approximately 1 amu (atomic mass unit).
• Quantum Numbers and their values:
  • n (principal quantum number): 1, 2, 3... (up to n)
  • l (azimuthal/angular momentum quantum number): 0, 1, 2... (n-1) for each n
  • m (magnetic quantum number): from -l to +l, including 0, for each l
  • s (spin quantum number): +1/2 and -1/2 for each m

History of the Periodic System

• The "father" of the periodic system, Dmitri Mendeleev, based his arrangement on atomic masses.
• Henry Moseley ordered the current periodic system based on atomic numbers.
• Döbereiner and Newlands' Contributions to the formation of the periodic system:
  1. Döbereiner's Triads: Based on the relationship between atomic mass

Electron Motion: Bohr Model vs. Quantum Theory

The description of electron motion around the nucleus of an atom differs significantly between the Bohr model and modern quantum theory.

Bohr's Planetary Model

In Bohr's planetary model, the electron's position and velocity can be precisely determined at any given time, allowing for the prediction of its linear motion in a fixed orbit around the nucleus of the atom.

Modern Quantum Theory and Orbitals

Modern quantum theory introduces the concept of an orbital, where the electron in its motion around the nucleus can take any path randomly and therefore does not follow a predetermined trajectory as in a classical orbit. An orbital provides the probability of finding the electron at a certain distance from... Continue reading "Atomic Structure and Electron Behavior: Key Properties" »

Carbon and the Carbon Cycle

Carbon is a nonmetallic element, relatively scarce in the Earth's crust and atmosphere. It is a fundamental component of living matter, both plant and animal. The carbon cycle provides the atmosphere with carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide allows plants, through photosynthesis, to synthesize their living matter. This plant material is assimilated by animals to form their own living matter. The carbon returns to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide through the respiration of living organisms, the decomposition of organic matter, and the combustion of fossil fuels formed from these materials.

Properties of Carbon Compounds

Carbon compounds tend to react relatively slowly compared with many ionic substances. Their melting and... Continue reading "Carbon and Hydrocarbons: Properties, Uses & Reactions" »

Fundamentals of Metal Heat Treatment

1. Why are metals heat treated?

Metals are heat treated to obtain specific properties, such as increased strength, improved hardness, or enhanced toughness.

2. Defining Allotropic and Non-Allotropic Materials

This distinction applies to both ferrous and nonferrous materials.

• Allotropic Materials: These materials undergo a reversible change in their atomic structure (lattice network) when subjected to temperature variations. This change in crystal structure is known as an allotropic transformation.
• Non-Allotropic Materials: These materials do not change their lattice structure regardless of temperature changes within the relevant processing range.

3. Most Important Heat Treatment for Hardening Steels

The most important... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Metal Heat Treatment and Material Properties" »

Metallic Material Classification

Metallic materials are classified in several ways:

• By chemical composition (e.g., steel or bronze).
• By use (e.g., light-alloy steel, light alloys).
• By manufacturing process (e.g., sintered materials).
• By main applications (e.g., for ships, plates).

Forms of Iron Materials

Iron can exist in various forms, including:

• Forged iron
• Cast iron
• Steel
• Conglomerate iron

Non-Ferrous Material Classification

Non-ferrous materials are classified into:

• Heavy Alloys: Copper, lead, zinc.
• Light Alloys: Aluminum, titanium.
• Ultra-Light Alloys: Magnesium, beryllium.

The Catalan Forging Process

The Catalan forging process utilized a small furnace or fireplace where wood or charcoal combustion was alternated with iron ore. Combustion, enhanced by air... Continue reading "Metallic Materials: Classification, Iron, Steel, and Casting" »

Normality (N)

Normality expresses the equivalent number of grams of solute present in one liter of solution.

Calculating the Equivalent Gram (Eq)

The equivalent gram is crucial for calculating normality. Its determination depends on the nature of the substance:

Equivalent Gram for Acids

To determine the equivalent gram of an acid, divide the gram molecular mass by the number of replaceable hydrogen atoms (H+).

Equivalent Gram for Bases or Hydroxides

To determine the gram equivalent of a base or hydroxide, divide the gram molecular mass by the number of hydroxyl groups (OH-) present.

Equivalent Gram for Salts

To determine the equivalent gram of a salt, divide the gram molecular mass by the total positive valence of the metal cation.

Molality (m)

Molality... Continue reading "Essential Definitions in Solution Chemistry and Titration" »

Zinc Concentrate Roasting Process: 850 T/day Capacity

Blende-Roasting Furnace and Heat Recovery Steam Generator

This includes the furnace that carries out the oxidation of ZnS, the heat recovery steam generator for cooling the gas, and the partial removal of solids carried by the gases.

Treatment Water for Steam-Water Circuit

This is the demineralized process water. This water will be used in the heat recovery boiler and furnace beams, which form part of the same circuit.

Purification of Gases from Roasting

The functions of the gas produced are to eliminate impurities and reduce the gas temperature for treatment.

Contact and Absorption

This is the transformation of SO₂ into sulfuric acid for reuse in marketing or the leaching stage.

Feedstock and Products

This... Continue reading "Zinc Concentrate Roasting Process in a Fluidized Bed Furnace" »

Ferrous Metals Classification

Based on Carbon Content

• Irons (0.01% to 0.03% C): White, difficult to obtain, with few industrial applications.
• Steels (0.03% to 1.76% C): Iron-carbon alloys that may contain other elements.
• Cast Irons (1.76% to 6.67% C): Iron-carbon alloys that may have other elements.
• Graphites (more than 6.67% C): Very fragile with no industrial applications.

Types of Cast Iron

Regular Cast Iron

• White Cast Iron: Very hard and brittle, used to make malleable iron.
• Gray Cast Iron: Used in malleable castings.
• Mottled Cast Iron: An intermediate between white and gray cast iron.

Alloyed Cast Iron

Contains iron, carbon, and other elements to improve its chemical properties.

Special Cast Iron

• Whiteheart Malleable Iron: A piece is molded in white

Chlorides

Chlorine, as an element, has a huge tendency to form the chloride ion (Cl^-, a chlorine atom with a negative charge). This ion, in turn, will tend to form salts with other positively charged elements or cations (Na⁺ sodium, K⁺ potassium, Mg²⁺ magnesium, etc.). The chloride ion is one of the main inorganic anions in natural water and wastewater. The chloride content of water is variable and is mainly due to the nature of the terrain traversed. Typically, the chloride ion content of natural waters is less than 50 mg/L. In drinking water, the salt produced by the Cl^- is variable and depends on the water chemistry.

Chlorite and Chlorate

These are salts derived from chloric acid and chlorous acid. These compounds tend to form chlorine gas,... Continue reading "Chloride: Properties, Uses, and Health Effects" »