Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Chemistry

• Lexeme: The abstract vocabulary item listed in the lexicon with a common core of meaning.
• Word-forms: Physical realizations of the lexeme.
• Paradigm: The list of word-forms that belong to a word.
• Morpheme: The smallest unit of analysis with semantic content or grammatical function that words are made up of.
• Morph: The physical realization of the morpheme. Morphs are made up of one or more morphemes.
• Syncretism: Identical word-forms that belong to the same lexeme but are different grammatical words.
• Root: The basic form that remains when you get rid of all the affixes.
• Stem: A term that we only use in inflectional morphology; it is the form to which you attach an inflectional affix (only suffixes in English).
• Base: Anything; any root and any stem are

Intermolecular Forces (IMFs)

IMFs include: Covalent, Hydrogen, Metallic, Dipole, London, and Ion interactions.

Solution Chemistry Formulas

• pH (Acidic Solutions): $\text{pH} = -\log[\text{H}^+] = -\log N = \text{p}H_A = \sqrt{K_a M}$ (where $K_a = x^2/M$ and $-\log x = \text{p}OH$ is incorrect in this context, use $\text{pH} = 14 - \text{pOH}$)
• pOH (Basic Solutions): $\text{pOH} = -\log[\text{OH}^-] = -\log N$. For weak bases (WB): $K_b = x^2/M$ and $-\log x = \text{pOH}$, leading to $\text{pH} = 14 - \text{pOH}$.

Strong Acids

Common strong acids include: $\text{HNO}_3$, $\text{H}_2\text{SO}_4$, $\text{HBr}$, $\text{HI}$, $\text{HClO}_4$, and $\text{HClO}_3$.

Lewis Acid

A compound or ionic species that can accept an electron pair from a donor compound.... Continue reading "Chemical Bonding and Solution Chemistry Concepts" »

The Process of Glycolysis

Step 1: Glucose Phosphorylation

Glucose is phosphorylated. Two phosphate groups are added to glucose to form hexose biphosphate. These two phosphate groups are provided by two molecules of ATP.

Step 2: Lysis of Hexose Biphosphate

Hexose biphosphate splits into two molecules of triose phosphate.

Step 3: Oxidation of Triose Phosphate

Each triose phosphate molecule is oxidised. Two atoms of hydrogen are removed from each molecule. The energy released by the oxidation is used to add another phosphate group to each molecule. This results in two 3-carbon compounds, each carrying two phosphate groups. NAD+ is the hydrogen carrier that accepts the hydrogen atoms lost from each triose phosphate molecule.

Step 4: Pyruvate Formation

Two... Continue reading "Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis, Link Reaction, and Krebs Cycle" »

1.Who propossed the theory of One-dimensional consolidation? Karl Terzaghi

2.What types of permeameters exist in Lab tests? Constant head permeameter and Failing head permeameter

3.What is the name of the equation that Governs the 2D underground flow? Laplace’s Equation.

4.Name of the method of draw flow nets That uses iterative calculations. Finite Differences

5.What are the units of the compression Index Cc? Adimensional, NOT UNITS

6.Describe boiling in soils. Boiling of soils occurs when there is an Upward flow and the seepage force is greater that the submerged weight of the Soil.

7.What are the assumptions in laplace’s Equation. Darcy’s law applies, Water and Solids are uncompressible

8.When in it better to use failing head permeameter?

Water Quality and Treatment Fundamentals

1. Eutrophication

What does the term eutrophication refer to?
An excess of algae growth due to inorganic nutrients.

2. Turbidity and Solubility

What type of particles are responsible for turbidity?
Particulate non-settleable compounds.

If the partial pressure of a gas increases, the solubility in water of the gas:
Increases.

3. Environmental Impacts

Which of the following is an effect of eutrophication?

• Increase of pH in water where there is eutrophication.
• Bacteria consume the oxygen in water by degrading dead plants.
• Plants do not grow due to a lack of sunlight.

Which of the following is an effect of thermal pollution?
Lack of O₂ due to lower solubility of gases at high temperatures.

4. Water Chemistry and Directives

What

Q#9.1: How order of reaction is experimentally determined.

Ans. Order of reaction is determined by the following two methods.

1. From Rate Law.

   In this method, the rate of reaction is measured using chemical and physical methods (volumetric, gravimetric, spectrophotometer, pH-meter, conductometric methods). The dependence of the rate of reaction on the concentration of reactants tells us about the order of reaction. For example, a reaction in which the rate of reaction doubles when the concentration of reactants is doubled will be of first order. If the rate increases four times by doubling the concentration, the reaction will be of second order.

2. Ostwald’s Isolation Or Large Excess Method.

   This method is used to determine the order of complicated

Q#9.2: Explain factors affecting rate of reaction.

Ans.The following factors strongly influence the rate of a reaction

1.Nature Of Reactants. The rate of reaction between polar or ionic

molecule is very fast. While the rearrangement reactions are slower than ionic reactions. Similarly oxidation reduction reactions are also slower than ionic. Some metals like sodium reacts vigorously with oxygen at room temp while magnesium needs flame to react with oxygen.

2.Effect Of Concentration Of Reactants.

By increasing the amount of reactants, the rate of reaction also increases. Consider a reaction which is composed of a gaseous mixture or concentrated solution, contains many active particles per unit volume. Therefore the rate of such reactions is faster... Continue reading "Key Factors Influencing Chemical Reaction Rates" »