Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Chemistry

Understanding Temperature

What is Temperature?

Temperature is the measurement of a substance's thermal energy.

Measuring Temperature

Mercury Thermometer

A mercury thermometer consists of a bulb containing liquid mercury and a thin tube. The liquid expands due to thermal expansion and rises up the tube, allowing the temperature to be read on a calibrated scale.

Digital Thermometer

A digital thermometer uses a microprocessor that measures the temperature and displays it on a liquid crystal display (LCD).

Temperature Scales

Common temperature scales include Celsius (ºC) and Kelvin (ºK).

• Celsius to Kelvin: K = C + 273.15
• Kelvin to Celsius: C = K - 273.15

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Conduction

Conduction is the transfer of heat energy primarily from solid to solid... Continue reading "Science Essentials: Temperature, Heat, Reactions, Environment" »

An Arrhenius acid is a substance that dissociates in water to form hydrogen ions or protons. In other words, it increases the number of H⁺ ions in the water. In contrast, an Arrhenius base dissociates in water to form hydroxide ions, OH^-.

A Bronsted-Lowry acid is a solution that donates protons and is known as a proton donor. The Bronsted-Lowry base, on the other hand, is a solution that accepts protons and is known as a proton acceptor. Going back to a Bronsted-Lowry acid, in general, it must contain a hydrogen ion that it can give up.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors in an Ecosystem

• Chemistry: The study of matter.
• Matter: Any substance that has mass and takes up space.
• Energy: The capacity of a physical system to do work.
• Ecosystem: All of the living things in a given area.
• Biotic: Living organisms (e.g., flowers, plants, bacteria).
• Abiotic: Non-living organisms (e.g., water, soil, air, light, wind).

States of Matter

• Solids: More dense, particles are very close, molecules only vibrate, cannot flow, defined shape, defined volume, not compressible.
• Liquids: Dense, particles are close, molecules have random flow, can flow, adaptable shape, defined volume, very little compressible.
• Gas: Less dense, particles are separated, molecules have a random, fast, and free movement, can flow, no shape,

HOW DO ATOMS BEHAVE DURING A CHEMICAL REACTION?

Chemical reactions occur when bonds between atoms break and new bonds form, creating a new arrangement of atoms and at least one new substance. Observable changes, such as temperature fluctuations, color changes, gas formation, new solids, and odors, accompany these reactions.

Conservation in Chemical Reactions

Besides energy, mass is also conserved during chemical reactions. Lavoisier's experiment disproving the "phlogiston theory" led to the development of the "law of conservation of mass," which states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. Balanced chemical equations represent this law.

Energy and Reactions

Energy is required to initiate reactions. Simply mixing chemicals... Continue reading "Understanding Chemical Reactions: From Atoms to Acid Rain" »

Thompson

Thompson was an historian with a Marxist background, whose interests of radical political works set him apart from other authors we studied. He, as Hoggart, followed culturalism, a perspective that stresses human agency, or the active production of culture, and not its passive consumption. His book The Making of the English Working Class embodies this term, since in it he traces the development of the English Working Class between the years 1780 and 1832, more or less the time encompassed by the Industrial Revolution. The book can be seen as a rescue operation of the members (especially radical ones) of the working class lost in the history lead by the deeds of monarchs, statesmen, military leaders and politicians. These other histories... Continue reading "The Making of the English Working Class: A Radical Perspective" »

Main Group Elements: Characteristics and Applications

Group 3 Elements (Boron to Thallium)

The elements in Group 3 (Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, Thallium) share the electron configuration ns²p¹.

Properties of Boron and Aluminum

• Boron (B): A hard, brittle solid with poor electrical conductivity. It primarily forms covalent bonds, such as B-B.
• Aluminum (Al): A shiny, malleable, and ductile metal with good electrical conductivity. Its common oxidation number is +3.

Chemical Reactions and Characteristics

• Boron reacts with Chlorine at high temperatures to form boron trichloride.
• Aluminum burns vigorously when heated in oxygen:

  2Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3

• Aluminum forms a self-protective layer of aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) on its surface, which prevents further

Atoms: They are Inside All Substances

Homologous Series

A series of organic compounds having similar structures and similar chemical properties in which the successive members differ in their molecular formula by -CH₂ group.

The different members of the series are called homologous.

Characteristics of Homologous Series

All the member of a homologous series can be described by a common general formula.

Example: All alkane can be described by the general formula C_nH_2n+2.

Each member of a homologous series differ from its higher and lower neighbouring members by a common difference of -CH₂ group.

Cations and Anions

Naming Monatomic Anions

                               Respiratory

1. A processes that take place in the cell to convert energy from nutrients into ATP, and them release waste

2. Carbon dioxide

3. A.)Nose B.)Pharynx C.)Carynx  D.)Trachea E.) Lung F.) Bronchioles G.) Alvelos

4. From the nose inhale oxygen then goes through the trachea then to the bronchus the goes through brochioles then to the alveoli that exchange with cappilaries  oxygen takes back carbon dioxide to exhale it .

5. In the alveoli it exchanges with cuppilaries.

Alveoli gives oxygen and cappilaries diffues carbon dioxide .

6. (I) Inhale oxygen

  (II) Exhale carbon dioxide