Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Chemistry

The pH Scale and Acidity Measurement

The pH scale is a system that measures the acidity of a substance. It is ranked from 1 to 14, with 1 being the most acidic and 14 being the most alkaline; 7 is neutral. The pH represents the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a substance and is measured using the pH scale.

Buffers: Maintaining pH Balance

Buffers are substances that tend to maintain a constant pH by liberating or capturing H+ ions. If blood becomes too acidic, bicarbonate accepts H+ ions, and carbonic acid is formed. If it becomes too basic, carbonic acid liberates H+ ions to interact with OH- ions to form water.

Major Classes of Biomolecules

Biomolecules are any molecules produced by a living organism. The four main groups are:

• Nucleic Acids
• Proteins
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids

Examples

Understanding States of Matter

Properties of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

• All are states of matter and are composed of particles.

Solids vs. Liquids

• In solids, particles are very close together and vibrate in fixed positions. Solids have a definite shape and definite volume.
• In liquids, particles are close together but can move past each other. Liquids do not have a definite shape but have a definite volume, taking the shape of their container.

Liquids and Gases

• Both liquids and gases do not have a definite shape; they take the shape of their container.
• Liquids and gases can flow because their molecules are moving and can slide over each other.

Gases

• In gases, particles are far apart and move randomly and rapidly.
• Common examples of gases include oxygen,

Production

Vocabulary: Dimensions

• Dimension: Big/Small
• Height: High/Low
• Depth: Deep/Shallow
• Width: Wide/Narrow
• Length: Long/Short
• Strength: Strong/Weak
• Thickness: Thick/Thin

Production 1

Improved quality control. Paper is an industrial process. It is the basic raw material. Increased productivity levels. The large store (for) finished product. Large factories use assembly lines. The company moved into large-scale manufacturing. The manufacturing (is the responsibility) of the production manager.

Complete the Sentences:

• Known as a batch.
• Is to assemble.
• Inputs to outputs.
• Is known as purchasing.
• Is called a component.
• Is to optimize.

Text:

We are making good progress with the new factory site layout: fixtures, equipment, machinery, workshops, etc. The present... Continue reading "Vocabulary for Manufacturing, Materials, and Energy" »

Fundamental Concepts in the Origins of Life

• Biogenesis: The principle that states all living things come from other living things.
• Spontaneous Generation: The theory that living things could arise from non-living matter.
• Radiometric Dating: A technique used to establish the age of materials.
• Isotope: Atoms of the same element with different mass numbers.
• Mass Number: The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
• Radioactive Decay: The process where a nucleus releases particles, radiant energy, or both.
• Radioactive Isotope: An isotope that undergoes radioactive decay.
• Half-life: The length of time an assembly of an isotope takes to decay by one-half.
• Microsphere: A spherical structure composed of protein molecules.
• Coacervate: A collection

Chapter 1 : Matter and change

Branches of chemistry

Organic Chemistry – the study of most carbon-containing compounds.

Inorganic Chemistry – the study of most non-carbon-containing compounds.

Physical Chemistry – the study of the properties and changes of matter and their relation to energy.

Biochemistry – the study of substances and processes occurring in living things.

Analytical Chemistry – the identification of the components and composition of materials.

Theoretical chemistry – the use of mathematics and computers to understand the principles behind observed chemical behaviour and to design and predict the properties of new compounds.

Matter

Atom – the smallest unit of an element that maintains the chemical identity of that element.

Mixture

A mixture is a physical blend of two or more components.

Heterogeneous mixture

A mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout is a heterogeneous mixture.

Homogeneous mixture

A homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout. Another name of homogeneous mixture is a solution.

Phase

The term phase is used to describe any part of a sample with a uniform composition and properties.

Filtration

The process that separates a solid from the liquid in a heterogeneous mixture is called filtration.

Distillation

One way to separate water from the other components in tap water is through a process called distillation.

Properties of Matter

Mass

The matter of an object is a measure of the amount of matter the object... Continue reading "Understanding Mixtures, Phases, and Chemical Reactions" »

Fundamental Concepts in Physical Science

I. Atomic and Chemical Structure

Basic Constituents of Matter

Atom

The basic or fundamental constituent of matter.

Element

A species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei.

Molecule

An electrically neutral group of two or more atoms of the same element held together by chemical bonds.

Compound

An electrically neutral group of two or more atoms of different elements held together by chemical bonds.

Ion

An atom or molecule in which the number of electrons is not equal to the number of protons. (Note: Extracting electrons can lead to plasma.)

Isotope

An element made up of atoms that have the same number of protons (atomic number) but a different number of neutrons (mass number).

Periodic Table

Diamond Properties and Production: Comprehension Check

Maximum Score: 7 points

1. True or False Statements (2 points)

Determine if the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. Copy the evidence directly from the source text. No marks are awarded for only stating TRUE or FALSE.

1. The structure of man-grown diamonds is completely different from that of natural diamonds.

   FALSE: Optically, chemically, and physically they're identical to a mine diamond.

2. Gemesis diamonds are cheaper than those found in mines.

   TRUE: As regards price, a one-carat yellow diamond from nature costs about $20,000 and a man-made one costs about $6,000.

2. Answering Questions in Your Own Words (2 points)

Based on the ideas in the text, answer the following questions in your own words.... Continue reading "Diamond Properties and Synthetic Production Quiz" »

Rutherford Experiment

The results of the gold foil experiment led to the discovery of a very densely packed bundle of matter with a positive electric charge. Rutherford called this positive bundle of matter the nucleus. He was trying to figure something else out and accidentally discovered this. As much of a discovery as the gold foil experiment was, it wasn’t discovered intentionally.

Atomic Number

Consists of the number of electrons or protons.

Mass Number

Consists of the protons added to the neutrons.

Nonpolar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are shared equally by the bonded atoms. Example: H-H

Polar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond in which the bonded atoms have an unequal attraction for the shared electrons. Example:... Continue reading "Introduction to Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding" »