Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Chemistry for Baccalaureate

Ideal Gas Equation of State

The general equation of state for ideal gases is:

p · V = n · R · T

Kinetic Theory of Gases

Gases consist of molecules that:

• Occupy no volume.
• Move randomly with a velocity whose mean depends on temperature.
• Collide elastically with each other and the vessel walls, causing pressure.

Boyle's Law

P₁ · V₁ = P₂ · V₂

At constant temperature, the volume occupied by a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure it is under.

Charles's and Gay-Lussac's Law

At constant pressure, the volume occupied by a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature at which it is located. At constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature at which it is located.

Dalton's Law

The total pressure...

Halogenation

Halogenation: The reaction of an alkane with a halogen (X2 = F, Cl, Br, I) occurs when a mixture of the two is irradiated with ultraviolet light.

Combustion

Combustion: The reaction of an alkane with O2 occurs during combustion when the alkane is used as a fuel. Carbon dioxide and water are formed as products, and a large amount of heat is released.

An example of a combustion reaction:

CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O + Energy

Complete

Complete: C2H6 (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g) + Energy

Incomplete

Incomplete: C3H8 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O (g) + CO2 (g) + CO (g) + C (s) + Energy

Petroleum

Petroleum: Complex mixture of alkanes that can be separated into fractions by distillation. Separating molecules based on differences in boiling points is called...

•Animals, plants, fungi, and most protists depend on mitochondria for energy to grow and survive

•There are more than 100 known mitochondrial disorders (including Luft syndrome)

•Defective mitochondria also contribute to many age-related problems (including Alzheimer’s)

•Aerobic respiration

•Form of cellular respiration in eukaryotes and many prokaryotes

•Oxygen is a reactant in the ATP producing process

•Anaerobic respiration

•Form of cellular respiration in some prokaryotes

•A molecule other than oxygen, such as sulfate or nitrate, is used in the ATP-producing process

•Photosynthesis stores energy from sunlight in electron-rich fuel molecules (such as sugars)

•Cellular respiration moves electrons from fuel to other molecules...

Biotic and Abiotic Factors in an Ecosystem

• Chemistry: The study of matter.
• Matter: Any substance that has mass and takes up space.
• Energy: The capacity of a physical system to do work.
• Ecosystem: All of the living things in a given area.
• Biotic: Living organisms (e.g., flowers, plants, bacteria).
• Abiotic: Non-living organisms (e.g., water, soil, air, light, wind).

States of Matter

• Solids: More dense, particles are very close, molecules only vibrate, cannot flow, defined shape, defined volume, not compressible.
• Liquids: Dense, particles are close, molecules have random flow, can flow, adaptable shape, defined volume, very little compressible.
• Gas: Less dense, particles are separated, molecules have a random, fast, and free movement, can flow, no shape,

Scientific Method

Ask a question.

Research.

Make a hypothesis.

Experiment and test your hypothesis.

Analyze your test results.

Present a conclusion.

Chemistry

Chemistry is the branch of science that studies the properties of matter and how matter interacts with energy.

Organic Chemistry

The branch of chemistry concerned with the study of compounds that contain the element carbon.

Inorganic Chemistry

The branch of chemistry concerned with the study of materials that contain any combination of chemical elements.

Element

A substance that cannot be broken into two or more simpler substances by any physical or chemical method and made of the same kind of atoms.

Compound

A molecule of a pure substance that contains two or more elements combined.

Heterogeneous Mixture

A...

Polyatomic Ions

• PO₄^-3 = Phosphate
• NO₃^-1 = Nitrate
• NO₂^-1 = Nitrite
• CrO₄^-2 = Chromate
• SO₄^-2 = Sulfate
• CO₃^-2 = Carbonate
• SO₃^-2 = Sulfite
• MnO₄^-1 = Permanganate
• HCO₃^-1 = Bicarbonate
• CH₃CO₂^-1 = Acetate
• ClO₄^-1 = Perchlorate
• ClO₃^-1 = Chlorate
• OH^-1 = Hydroxide
• CN^-1 = Cyanide
• NH₄⁺¹ = Ammonium

Naming Mineral Acids

• HF = Hydrofluoric Acid
• HCl = Hydrochloric Acid
• HBr = Hydrobromic Acid
• HI = Hydroiodic Acid

Naming Oxacids

• HNO₂ = Nitrous Acid
• H₂SO₃ = Sulfurous Acid

Diatomic

• N₂, O₂, F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂

Metric Conversions

• Giga^9
• Mega^6
• Kilo^3
• Base = 1
• Deci^-1
• Centi^-2
• Milli^-3
• Micro^-6
• Nano^-9
• Pico^-12

Atomic Models

• Bohr: Based on the assumption that electrons travel in specific shells around the nucleus. Did not work for systems with more than 1 electron.
• Rutherford: Theorized that atoms have their

Understanding Substance Separation Methods

Separating mixtures is a fundamental process in chemistry and daily life. These techniques leverage differences in physical or chemical properties of the components. Below are common methods for separating substances, categorized by the primary property exploited.

Separation Based on Physical Properties

Magnetization

• Principle: Magnetic properties.
• Process: Magnetic materials are attracted to a magnet, separating them from non-magnetic substances.
• Example: Separating iron filings from sand.

Sieving

• Principle: Particle size.
• Process: Larger solid substances are retained by the sieve, while smaller ones pass through.
• Example: Separating stones from sand.

Filtration

• Principle: Particle size.
• Process: A solid substance