Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

Nutrition: Function and Importance Nutrition includes all processes to get the materials of development and the energy we need to live like .--- La Nutricion: Nutrition is a long process. One step is to take food. Function in the 4 processes involved Nutrition: Circulation - the digestive process, respiration, and excretion Feeding and Nutrients To live, we need the nutrients that food contains. The main groups are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals - A diet is complete when it contains all types of nutrients. A balanced diet is when it gives us the necessary amount of each nutrient.

The Human Digestive Process

There are three phases in the processing of food: digestion, absorption, and expulsion of waste. This process, driven by peristaltic movements, involves several key steps:

1. Mouth: Digestion begins in the mouth as a result of mastication (chewing) and salivation. Saliva is a liquid produced by the salivary glands in the mouth.
2. Stomach: After swallowing, the food reaches the stomach where gastric digestion begins, and chyme is produced.
3. Small Intestine: The duodenum continues the chemical digestion of the food. Chyme is mixed there with intestinal juices, resulting in chyle, which is then absorbed.

Respiration and Blood Composition

The Respiratory Cycle

During inspiration, the air enters the lungs. During expiration, the air... Continue reading "Human Biology Essentials: Digestion, Blood, and Mitosis" »

Public Health Protection Strategies

Water Treatment and Disinfection

Water must be potabilized (made safe for drinking). This involves two main processes:

1. Pretreatment: This process is intended for physical-chemical correction and the removal of solid particles (e.g., decantation, filtration, aeration).
2. Disinfection: The objective is the elimination of pathogenic microorganisms. Disinfection may be done using chlorine, ozone, or ultraviolet radiation.

Waste Management and Treatment

Wastewater: This includes domestic and industrial sources, rainwater, and street washings. This water needs to undergo a preliminary purification treatment to remove all hazardous components.

Solid Waste: Municipal and industrial solid waste is collected and transported... Continue reading "Public Health Strategies: Water, Waste Management, and Immunization" »

Functions of Muscle Tissue

• Production of body movements
• Stabilization of posture
• Volume regulation of the body
• Movement of chemicals in the body
• Production of heat

Properties of Muscle Tissue

• Electrical excitability
• Contractility
• Extensibility
• Elasticity

Types of Muscle Tissue

There are three types of muscle tissue: striated skeletal, striated cardiac, and smooth.

• Striated skeletal muscle: Called skeletal because the function of these muscles is to move the bones; it often works on a voluntary basis.
• Heart muscle (myocardium): Is located in the heart and is part of its wall. Its movement is involuntary.
• Smooth muscle: Is part of the walls of blood vessels, airways, and some guts. Almost always, this type of muscle movement is involuntary.

Structure of Striated

What is Embryology?

Embryology is the branch of biology that studies the development of an organism from a fertilized egg. It encompasses several key concepts:

• Ontogeny: The transformations that the embryo undergoes during development.
• Phylogeny: The evolutionary history of a species.

Historical Theories of Development

Historically, two main theories attempted to explain embryonic development:

• Preformationism: This theory argued that a miniature version of the organism, called a "homunculus," was present in either the sperm or the egg. Scientists who believed in this were called "animalculists." In 1699, Danlenpatius proposed this theory.
• Epigenesis: This theory proposed that adult body structures were not preformed in the gametes but developed gradually.

Anatomy and Function of Key Body Systems

Organs and Parts of the Digestive System

• The **Digestive Tract** includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.
• **Accessory Glands** include the salivary glands, the pancreas, and the liver.

Maintaining Digestive Health

• Wash hands thoroughly before meals.
• Brush teeth after meals using a fluoride toothpaste. Brushing should take at least three minutes.
• Chew food well and maintain correct posture while sitting at the table to ensure adequate intake.
• Ensure that eating is a moment of relaxation, shared with people with whom you can maintain a peaceful and pleasant conversation.

The Respiratory System

Organs of Respiration

• **Airways:** The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,

Genetics: The Study of Gene Inheritance

Genes are transmitted according to defined rules or laws. Genes are located on chromosomes, which are cellular structures. Sex is determined by specific genes or chromosomes in most living organisms.

Key Genetic Terms

• Genotype: The genetic constitution of an individual, referring to a specific character or the entire set of genes.
• Phenotype: The external expression of the genotype; the observable characteristics of an individual.
• Alleles: Variants that a gene may present. For each gene, an individual has a pair of alleles, often represented by letters.
• Homozygous: An individual having two identical alleles for a specific gene.
• Heterozygous: An individual carrying two different alleles for a specific gene.

Mendelian

Acoustic and Articulatory Classification of Speech Sounds

Places of Articulation (Phonetic Classification)

Sounds are classified based on where the vocal tract is constricted:

• Labial (Lip): Severe and diffuse sound, articulated with the lips.
  • Voiced (Sonoro): (b, m)
  • Unvoiced (Sordo): (p, f)
• Dental: Acute and diffuse sound, articulated with the tongue on the teeth (anterior and coronal).
  • Voiced (Sonoro): (d)
  • Unvoiced (Sordo): (t, s [strident], c [mate])
• Velar (Soft Palate): Serious, thick sound, articulated by striking the tongue against the soft palate (velum).
  • Voiced (Sonoro): (g [as in 'gue'])
  • Unvoiced (Sordo): (k, x [j])
• Palatal: Acute and dense sound, articulated by rubbing the tongue against the hard palate (coronal).
  • Voiced (Sonoro): (ñ, y)
  • Unvoiced

Immunodeficiencies: Types and Causes

An individual suffers from an immunodeficiency when their immune system is unable to effectively combat or stop an infection. These conditions are broadly categorized into two main types: congenital and acquired.

Congenital Immunodeficiencies

Congenital immunodeficiencies are genetic and inherited conditions. They arise from failures in the synthesis of the complement system or from the abnormal development of lymphoid organs. These can manifest as:

• B Lymphocyte Defects

  These are due to defects in B lymphocytes, which are unable to produce normal antibodies or produce them in insufficient quantities. Symptoms typically do not appear until after 6 months of age.

• T Lymphocyte Defects

  Defects in T lymphocytes are

Fundamentals of Protein Synthesis

1. Information for Protein Synthesis

Question: Which part of the cell contains the information needed to synthesize a protein?

Answer: Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), primarily located in the nucleus.

2. Cellular Organelles for Protein Production

Question: What are the cellular organelles responsible for making proteins, and where are they located in the cell?

Answer: Ribosomes, which are primarily located in the cytoplasm and on the endoplasmic reticulum.

3. Understanding RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

Statement: RNA, or Ribonucleic Acid, plays a crucial role in gene expression and protein synthesis.

4. RNA Nucleobases

Question: Name the four nucleobases found in RNA.

Answer: Cytosine, Guanine, Adenine, and Uracil.

5. The Process