Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

Kidney and Urinary Tract Conditions

Renal Failure Explained

Renal failure signifies insufficient filtration of blood at the Malpighian glomeruli. This leads to reduced urine production and inadequate elimination of excretory substances.

Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, seizures, and fainting. If untreated, it can lead to death.

Common causes include:

• Renal injuries
• Deficient blood pressure in the kidneys
• Urine retention due to an obstruction in the urinary tract

Nephritis: Kidney Inflammation

Nephritis is kidney inflammation resulting from infectious or non-infectious causes. Symptoms typically include pain, goosebumps, and fever.

Cystitis: Bladder Inflammation

Cystitis refers to inflammation of the bladder, generally caused by an infection. It results... Continue reading "Human Body Systems: Renal, Reproductive, and Cellular Functions" »

All Cells Form from Existing Cells

• Centipedes: 1 pair of legs per each section
• Millipedes: 2 pairs per each section

• All organisms are composed of one or more cells
• The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things
• Cells are produced by the division of pre-existing

Excretion

Elimination of waste substances from blood is performed by the urinary system and other organs.

Urinary System

• Kidneys: bean-shaped organs behind the abdomen, filtering blood to form urine.
• Ureter: thin tubes transporting urine to the bladder.
• Urinary bladder: elastic bag storing urine.
• Urethra: duct transporting urine outside.

Other organs involved in excretion are lungs, liver, and sweat glands.

The Circulatory System

Function: Transporting O2, nutrients, and collecting CO2 and waste substances.

Blood

• Blood Plasma: 55% of blood, transporting nutrients, waste substances, and CO2.
• Blood Cells: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

Blood Vessels

Arteries, veins, and blood capillaries carry blood around the body.

Heart

Hollow muscular... Continue reading "Excretion and Circulatory System Overview" »

Protein Structure:

It is a three-dimensional structure. Polypeptides are folded to produce a globular shape. The structure is stabilized by intermolecular bonds between amino acids.

Primary Structure:

Is the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. It is codified by a gene. The sequence of nucleotides in a gene codify the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

Secondary Structure:

3-dimensional conformation. It's the formation of beta-pleated and alpha helices, established by hydrogen bonds. It's the bond formed between the carboxyl group and the amino group.

Tertiary Structure:

The polypeptide chain is folded and established by interactions between R groups. The conformation is established by intramolecular bonds and interactions... Continue reading "Protein Structure and Functions" »

Polymerization –plus and minus ends of actin, Kd, critical concentration, phases of growth of polymers (lag, growth, and steady-state), nucleating factors, why growth occurs preferentially at plus end.

a.High Kd and Cc= ADP + Factin lower affinity actin so dissociate

b.Lower kd and Cc= Gactin/Factin + ATP higher affinity actin so dissociate

c.Profilin and thymosin: Profilin binds to (-) end = plus end grow fast

d.Thymosin buffer + actin monomer = prevent polymerization or ATP hydrolysis.

e.Actin monomer (is above Kd) & regulates actin filament assembly.

Arp2/3 comples to make a seed (nucleate) acting growth. Can create tree-like web

Myosin II structure: motor protein makes force in skeletal contraction muscles.

a.Heavy chain with NT head (ATPase... Continue reading "Cell Biology: Actin, Myosin, and Microtubules" »

A Minimal pair is a pair of words that vary by only A single sound, usually meaning sounds that may confuse English learners, like The /f/ and /v/ infanandvan, Or the /e/ and /ɪ/ indeskanddisk

Minimal Pairs /ɪ/ and /i:/sit Seat

Minimal Pairs /e/ and /ɪ/desk disk

Minimal Pairs /e/ and /eɪ/wet wait

Minimal Pairs /æ/ and /ʌ/bat but

Minimal Pairs /əʊ/ and /ɔ:/sosaw

Minimal Pairs /ɒ/ and /əʊ/not note

Minimal Pairs /æ/ and /e/bad bed

Minimal Pairs /ɑ:/ and /ɜ:/fast first

Consonant Sounds

Minimal Pairs /b/ and /v/berryvery

Minimal Pairs /b/ and /p/buypie

Minimal Pairs /n/ and /ŋ/thinthing

Minimal Pairs /l/ and /r/alive arrive

Minimal Pairs /ʧ/ and /t/catchcat

Minimal Pairs /s/ and /ʃ/seashe

Minimal Pairs /f/ and /v/fanvan

Minimal Pairs /f/ and /h/

How Kidneys Work: Filtration and Waste Elimination

Solid waste products need to be dissolved in water to be eliminated from the body.

The Nephron: The Kidney's Functional Unit

Each kidney contains over a million functional units called nephrons, where the filtering process takes place.

Parts of the Nephron

• Bowman’s Capsule: Surrounds a tiny network of capillaries.
• The Tubule: Shaped like a handle, several nephrons empty into a large tube called a collecting duct.
• The Collecting Duct: Moves urine into the renal pelvis.

Kidney Function Process

1. Blood moves through the capillary networks where filtration occurs. Small molecules such as water, salts, glucose, and urea exit the bloodstream and enter Bowman’s capsule, forming the filtrate.
2. Some of the molecules

Cellular Development Stages

The early stages of development occur at the cellular, tissue, and organ levels of organization. At the cellular level, development includes cleavage, resulting in a multicellular embryo and the formation of a blastula.

Cleavage, which encompasses DNA replication and mitotic stages, is cell division without growth and results in a morula, a ball of cells. The next cellular stage is the formation of a blastula, a hollow ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel. The blastocoel forms when the cells of the morula pump Na+ into extracellular spaces, and water follows by osmosis.

Tissue Development Stages

The tissue stages of development are the early gastrula and the neurula. The early gastrula stage begins... Continue reading "Developmental Biology and Genetic Disorders" »

1) Respiratory Tract:

Passages through which oxygen enters the lungs and carbon dioxide is expelled.

• Nasal Passages: Air enters the nose and continues through these passages, where it is moistened and warmed. Dust and microorganisms in the air are retained here.
• Pharynx: Air from the nasal passages reaches the pharynx, which is part of both systems.
• Larynx: Made of cartilage. The vocal cords vibrate and enable humans to make sounds.
• Trachea: C-shaped cartilage rings through which air travels from the larynx to the bronchi.
• Bronchi and Bronchioles: Bronchi are two tubes that branch out from the trachea into each lung. They divide into small tubes called bronchioles, rounded sacs