Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Biology

The Role of Microbiology in Biotechnology

Microbiology plays a crucial role in biotechnology, as it provides the foundational knowledge and techniques needed to manipulate microorganisms for various applications. Here are some key aspects of microbiology in biotechnology:

Key Aspects of Microbiology in Biotechnology

1. Microbial Diversity

Microbiology helps in understanding the vast diversity of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and archaea. This knowledge is essential for selecting suitable organisms for biotechnological processes.

2. Genetic Engineering

Microorganisms like bacteria and yeast are commonly used in genetic engineering techniques. This involves modifying the genetic material of these organisms to produce desired traits,... Continue reading "The Role of Microbiology in Biotechnology: Applications and Advancements" »

Chemical Evolution

Chemical evolution refers to the processes that created the biomolecules, and then formed structures called protocells. According to Oparin, the first biomolecules were synthesized when the components of Earth’s primitive atmosphere reacted on contact with each other.

Biological Evolution

Biological evolution refers to the processes that led protocells to become different types of cells, and resulted in all the different organisms ever to have inhabited the Earth. Different types of prokaryotic cells were created from primitive cells: heterotrophic cells, photosynthetic cells, aerobic cells, long and very mobile cells.

Fixist Theories

Fixist theories uphold the idea that the species that currently exist on Earth were created... Continue reading "Chemical and Biological Evolution Theories and Characteristics of Hominids" »

Lower Canine

Root may bifurcate into 2 divisions

Chron:

• Enamel: 6-7 y.o
• Eruption: 9-10 y.o
• Root: 12-13 y.o

Geo:

• Lng/lab: pentagon/trapezoid, short side cervical

Mes-Dis:

• Triangular base cervical

Incis:

• Diamond

Labially:

• Cervical ridge/labial ridge/mes-dis development grooves

Lingually:

• Cingulum/lingual ridge/mes-des marginal ridge/1 lingual fossa

Mesial Contact:

• Incisal third

Distal Contact:

• Middle third

Pulp Cavity:

• 1 pulp horn/oval shaped transversally

Cusp Length:

• Distal side is longer

Upper First Premolar

Mesial Marginal Developmental Groove/Canine Fossa

Chro:

• Enamel: 5-6 y.o
• Eruption: 10-11 y.o
• Root: 12-13 y.o

Geo:

• Lng/Bucc: Trapezoid; short side cervical

Mes-Dis:

• Trapezoid; long side cervical

Occlu:

• Hexagonal

Buccally:

• Cervical/Buccal Ridge/Mes-Dis Buccal Developmental Groove

Mesially:

Digestive Process

Key Components of the Digestive System

• Epiglottis: A flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue, which is depressed during swallowing to cover the opening of the windpipe.
• Esophagus: The tube that extends from the throat to the stomach.
• Lower Esophageal Sphincter: A bundle of muscles at the low

What Makes a Living Thing ‘Living’?

Non-Living Things

Non-living things are made up of inorganic matter. The most abundant chemical elements that make up inorganic matter are: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), and iron (Fe).

Living Things

All living things, also called organisms, are made up of the same chemical elements.

The elements that form part of living matter are known as bioelements.

The six most abundant bioelements are: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S). They make up more than 90% of living matter. The atoms and molecules of bioelements combine with each other through chemical reactions, producing biomolecules. Biomolecules may be:

• Inorganic, such as water and mineral salts.
• Organic

es 3:       x        Cornea                         1   1    2      Dendrites: receive the 

All

Long

I-Parkinson Sx(Amimia/Micrgraphia)(dementia/hyperkinesia)II-2nd Park(Neuroleptic)(CO/Arteriscleoris/encephlaiits)III-Syringomyelia(Sensory loss/Wasting/Long tract/Autonomiv)IV-Tx of M Gravis(Ach(-)(CSD)(Plasmophoresis)(thymectomy)V-Foot Drop(L5...)VI-Open Depressed ScullVII-Cerebral artery aneurysm!(gigantic,sacular)VIII-Sterotactic Techniques used for:^^glioblastoma Histology-Lumbar vertebral Fractures:-Sx provoked by brain tumour!-Multifocal Tumours:-Dx for Cerebral artery aneurysm-Cerebral artery naeurysm Clipped by:

-CN 9+10 Dx:-Lesion CN 5(sensory nuclei)-CN 9 lesion!-Malingnant brain glioma

***T/F:

-CS tract(NOT ) onl from Frontal-BS lesion--->controlateral hemiparesis(T)-Bilateral amr paralysis, Central cord(T)-controlateral Focal

Key Concepts in Evolution

Species: A set of individuals that can reproduce with each other and create fertile offspring.

Speciation: A process driven by several factors:

• Natural selection: Natural selection favors some individuals over others.
• Genetic isolation: Members of two different populations within the same species can no longer reproduce with the other population.
• Gradual differentiation: After isolation, populations become increasingly different.
• Speciation: Over time, genetic changes produce such significant differences that it's no longer possible for two populations to produce fertile offspring.

Human Ancestors

• Australopithecus (6 million years ago): The first hominid, walked upright.
• Homo habilis (2.5 million years ago): Used rudimentary