Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

A Minimal pair is a pair of words that vary by only A single sound, usually meaning sounds that may confuse English learners, like The /f/ and /v/ infanandvan, Or the /e/ and /ɪ/ indeskanddisk

Minimal Pairs /ɪ/ and /i:/sit Seat

Minimal Pairs /e/ and /ɪ/desk disk

Minimal Pairs /e/ and /eɪ/wet wait

Minimal Pairs /æ/ and /ʌ/bat but

Minimal Pairs /əʊ/ and /ɔ:/sosaw

Minimal Pairs /ɒ/ and /əʊ/not note

Minimal Pairs /æ/ and /e/bad bed

Minimal Pairs /ɑ:/ and /ɜ:/fast first

Consonant Sounds

Minimal Pairs /b/ and /v/berryvery

Minimal Pairs /b/ and /p/buypie

Minimal Pairs /n/ and /ŋ/thinthing

Minimal Pairs /l/ and /r/alive arrive

Minimal Pairs /ʧ/ and /t/catchcat

Minimal Pairs /s/ and /ʃ/seashe

Minimal Pairs /f/ and /v/fanvan

Minimal Pairs /f/ and /h/

How Kidneys Work: Filtration and Waste Elimination

Solid waste products need to be dissolved in water to be eliminated from the body.

The Nephron: The Kidney's Functional Unit

Each kidney contains over a million functional units called nephrons, where the filtering process takes place.

Parts of the Nephron

• Bowman’s Capsule: Surrounds a tiny network of capillaries.
• The Tubule: Shaped like a handle, several nephrons empty into a large tube called a collecting duct.
• The Collecting Duct: Moves urine into the renal pelvis.

Kidney Function Process

1. Blood moves through the capillary networks where filtration occurs. Small molecules such as water, salts, glucose, and urea exit the bloodstream and enter Bowman’s capsule, forming the filtrate.
2. Some of the molecules

Cellular Development Stages

The early stages of development occur at the cellular, tissue, and organ levels of organization. At the cellular level, development includes cleavage, resulting in a multicellular embryo and the formation of a blastula.

Cleavage, which encompasses DNA replication and mitotic stages, is cell division without growth and results in a morula, a ball of cells. The next cellular stage is the formation of a blastula, a hollow ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel. The blastocoel forms when the cells of the morula pump Na+ into extracellular spaces, and water follows by osmosis.

Tissue Development Stages

The tissue stages of development are the early gastrula and the neurula. The early gastrula stage begins... Continue reading "Developmental Biology and Genetic Disorders" »

1) Respiratory Tract:

Passages through which oxygen enters the lungs and carbon dioxide is expelled.

• Nasal Passages: Air enters the nose and continues through these passages, where it is moistened and warmed. Dust and microorganisms in the air are retained here.
• Pharynx: Air from the nasal passages reaches the pharynx, which is part of both systems.
• Larynx: Made of cartilage. The vocal cords vibrate and enable humans to make sounds.
• Trachea: C-shaped cartilage rings through which air travels from the larynx to the bronchi.
• Bronchi and Bronchioles: Bronchi are two tubes that branch out from the trachea into each lung. They divide into small tubes called bronchioles, rounded sacs

Bone Formation Processes

Intramembranous Bone Formation

Bone forms via the direct secretion of bone matrix within connective tissue, without any intermediate formation of cartilage. There is no formation of cartilage in this process.

Key characteristics:

• Occurs in the periosteum (external part), endosteum, alveolar bone, and sutures.
• In the craniofacial vault complex, this type occurs specifically in the cranial vault and jaws.

Endochondral Bone Formation

In this process, cartilage is converted into bone.

Key characteristics:

• In early stages, cartilage is present from the nose to the cranial base and occipital bone.
• Prenatally, a series of synchondroses exist within and between the ethmoid, sphenoid, and occipital bones. These facilitate rapid increase

True or False Statements:

Characteristics of the Genetic Code

• Universality: The specificity of the genetic code has been conserved from very early stages of evolution.
• Degenerate: A particular codon always codes for the same amino acid.
• Specificity: Each codon corresponds to a single amino acid.
• Nonoverlapping and Commaless: The code is read from a fixed starting point as a continuous sequence of bases, taken 3 at a time.

Amino Acid Calculation:

The shortest gene discovered in human chromosome 19 consists of 1000 nucleotides, 666 nucleotides of which are introns. What is the maximum number of... Continue reading "Genetics: Transcription, Translation, and Genetic Code Principles" »

Cell Membrane Dynamics

Plasma membrane phospholipids are labeled with a fluorescent tag and then the phospholipids in one area are bleached with a laser beam to eliminate the fluorescent signal. What would one observe after the cell is incubated for a few minutes? The bleached molecules would diffuse laterally through the membrane and intermix with unbleached molecules. Cellular membranes are mosaic and fluid. Glycosylated proteins and lipids within the plasma membrane are important for cell recognition and protection.

Passive Diffusion

Passive diffusion is a spontaneous process. Water diffuses through certain organs such as the kidneys and bladder much faster than would occur by passive diffusion through a lipid bilayer alone. What accounts for... Continue reading "Cell Membrane Dynamics and Transport Mechanisms" »

Still the Eye

Homeostasis

Thermoregulation

Zika is a mosquito-borne disease transmitted by the same mosquito that carries the dengue virus. There have also been cases of transmission through sexual intercourse.

Transmission

Most people get Zika from a mosquito bite. Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on the blood of a person already infected with the virus, and when they bite others, they can transmit the virus. Other forms of transmission include:

• A pregnant woman can pass the Zika virus to her fetus during pregnancy or at the time of birth.
• Zika can also be transmitted through sexual intercourse and blood transfusion.

Symptoms

Zika can cause incomplete brain development in fetuses. Common symptoms include fever, rash, joint pain, and conjunctivitis.

Prevention

To reduce the risk of