Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Biology

1. Bioelements O biogenic elements.

Are the chemical elements that are part of living matter. We found about 70 chemical elements forming part of living matter, these are in various proportions and not all are present in all living things. In accordance with its wealth divide:
Bioelements-primary.
Bioelements-side.

• Bioelements Primary: These are found in greater proportion, are present in all biomolecules. Represents around 95% by weight of living matter. They are the C, O, H, N and to a lesser extent P and S.
  These items have been selected among all those who constitute the Earth's crust to form living matter, although except oxygen are the most abundant, possessing features among which are the following:

1-have incomplete outer electron... Continue reading "Bioelements" »

GMO - Genetically modified organisms


Benefits and Risks
Advantages
Key benefits of biotechnology are:
·
Superior performance. By GMO crop yield increases, giving more food for fewer resources, reducing crop losses as well as environmental factors

• Reduced pesticide Whenever a GMO is modified to resist a particular pest is helping to reduce pesticide use associated with it that often cause widespread environmental damage and health. ^[

• Improved nutrition can be reached by introducing vitamins and protein on food and reduce the allergens and natural toxins. You can also try to grow in extreme conditions as auxiliaries to the countries that have less food available.

Improves the development of new materiales.La application of biotechnology... Continue reading "Advantages and disadvantages of biotechnology" »

POSITIONS OF PLACEMENT OF PATIENTS
Supine or dorsal
In the anatomical position, the patient remains with his hands on either side of the body, arms extended, adducted thumbs and hands of pronation.
The head is held erect and the feet pointing forward. The knees and fingers in slight flexion
The patient is lying on your back with legs extended, attached to the upper and lower body together.
Uses:
· Examination of the chest, abdomen, upper and lower limbs.
· Postoperative.
And Accommodation in bed
· Position change.
· Palpation of the breasts.
Contraindications:
· Elders.
· Lung disease.
Sick of long-term ·
Prone position or ventral


Also called prone. In this position the patient lies on his abdomen and chest, his head... Continue reading "Positions" »

Corn
Kingdom Plantae
Traqueofita Division
Angiosperm Class
Subclass Monocotyledoneae
Cereals Order
Family Poaceae (Gramineae)
Scientific name (genus and species) Zea mays

Bean

Kingdom:	Plantae
Division:	Magnoliophyta
Class:	Magnoliopsida
Subclass:	Rosidae
Order:	Fabales
Family:	Fabaceae
Subfamily:	Faboideae
Tribe:	Phaseoleae
Subtribe:

... Continue reading "Example of classification of animals: kingdom, family, class, order and scientific names" »

Active Transport

Active transport moves substances across membranes from lower to higher concentration, against the concentration gradient. This process requires cellular energy (ATP) and a carrier protein.

The substance binds to the carrier protein's receptor site on one side of the membrane. ATP changes the protein's shape, releasing the substance on the other side. Active transport occurs only in living, respiring cells.

Factors influencing active transport:

• ATP Production: Increased ATP production increases active transport rate.
• Temperature and Oxygen: These affect respiration and ATP production, thus impacting transport rate.
• Mitochondria: Cells with more mitochondria have higher transport rates due to increased ATP production.
• Poisons: Respiratory

... Continue reading "Active & Passive Transport in Plants: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Infrared Spectra of Alkanes

Alkanes, being saturated hydrocarbons, only contain Carbon-Carbon (C-C) and carbon-hydrogen single bonds. Their IR spectra are relatively simple due to the absence of strong functional groups.

C-H Stretching

The most prominent peaks in an alkane's IR spectrum are due to C-H stretching vibrations. These sharp, strong bands typically appear in the range of 2850-2960 cm^-1. The exact wavenumber can vary slightly depending on the specific alkane and its branching.

Infrared Spectra of Alkenes

Alkenes contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond (C=C), along with C-H bonds. The presence of the double bond introduces distinct features in their IR spectra compared to alkanes.

C=C Stretching

The stretching vibration of the C=C... Continue reading "Infrared Spectroscopy of Organic Compounds: A Comprehensive Guide" »

To sort the diversity of life using a rating system. Kingdom, phylum. sub class, super, order, sub groups, sub, genus, species, sub. Hierarchical binomial nomenclature, the greater the taxa categories. To reconstruct the phylogeny of a group uses a character that varies among members (ancestral character.) Is also used to compare outgroup (outgroup ) This is phylogenetically close, but not part of the study group. For any phylogenetic reconstruction we need to consider the characters that we use in our analysis and determine which is the primitive condition that presents the common ancestor of several. In this sense, we use the apomorphies that
refer to a derived or specialized character. In contrast, plesiomorphic, is a primitive character.

... Continue reading "Zoologist" »

Human Body and Homeostasis

Cells and Their Functions

Cytoplasm: The material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus, composed of cytosol (largely water with dissolved proteins) and cytoplasmic organelles.

• Mitochondria: Provide ATP (energy).
• Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum: Manufactures proteins and catalyzes reactions.
• Golgi Body: Concentrates and packages proteins.
• Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes; degrade unwanted substances.
• Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support.
• Nucleus: Control center of the cell; contains genes.
• Centriole: Plays an active role in cell division.
• Microvilli: Increase surface area for absorption.
• Vacuole: Membrane-bound organelle that stores and excretes substances.

Plasma Membrane: Separates... Continue reading "Human Body Systems: A Comprehensive Overview" »

Circulatory System

Deoxygenated blood from the body returns to the right atrium of the heart through the superior and inferior vena cavae. The right atrium contracts, pushing the blood through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. The right ventricle contracts, pumping the deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery carries the deoxygenated blood to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide through the process of gas exchange. Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart via the pulmonary veins. The left atrium contracts, pushing the oxygenated blood through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. The left ventricle contracts, pumping... Continue reading "Understanding the Circulatory and Reproductive Systems" »

Chromosomes and DNA

Genes are contained within chromosomes, which are made of DNA and located in the cell nucleus. A chromosome contains thousands of genes. Every normal human contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of 46 chromosomes.

Traits and Alleles

A trait is any gene-determined characteristic, often determined by more than one gene. Gene: A segment of DNA that controls a hereditary trait. Alleles are different versions of a gene that produce distinguishable traits in offspring. Two alleles must be present in order for a trait to appear in the offspring. One allele is provided by each parent to the offspring. When fertilization of sperm and eggs occurs, the new offspring will have 2 alleles for each gene.

Gregor Mendel's Contributions

Gregor... Continue reading "Genetics: The Basics of Heredity and Traits" »