Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Baccalaureate

Rousseau: On Freedom and Equality

Historical Context

Jean-Jacques Rousseau belongs to the 18th century, a period dominated by the Enlightenment in both England and France. This era was characterized by full confidence in reason as the primary means to solve human problems.

Theme

The central theme of Rousseau's work, as presented here, is the importance of equality and freedom as the foundation of human coexistence.

Main Ideas

• Equality is necessary for liberty.
• Equality is central to human relations and respect for the State.
• Equality under the law prevents any form of slavery.

Relationship of Ideas

The individual transitions from a state of nature to civil society as a member of a group, yet remains free while subject to the general will, expressed through...

Tabanidae: Horseflies and Deerflies

Life Cycle of Tabanus, Chrysops, and Haematopota

The life cycle of horseflies and deerflies (genera Tabanus, Chrysops, and Haematopota) is closely tied to water and is notably long, typically lasting 1-2 years.

• Oviposition: Females lay eggs on plants or stones located close to water bodies.
• Larval Stage: Upon hatching, the larvae enter the water. They are not swimmers but feed on organic matter and plankton. They undergo several larval stages.
• Pupation: The final larval stage burrows into the mud and transforms into a pupa.
• Adult Emergence: Orthorrhaphous adults emerge from the pupa.

Ecology and Ethology

These flies are commonly found in meadows and woodlands near water collections. Ethologically, they are highly...

Introduction to Giardia duodenalis

• Giardia duodenalis is also known as Giardia lamblia and Giardia intestinalis.
• It is a flagellated unicellular eukaryotic microorganism that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine.
• It commonly causes a gastrointestinal condition known as Giardiasis.

Classification of Giardia duodenalis

• There are five species of Giardia, of which G. intestinalis infects humans and other mammals.
• G. duodenalis can further be differentiated into seven genotypes (A to G), of which genotypes A and B usually infect humans.

History and Global Distribution of Giardiasis

• It is one of the earliest protozoan parasites to have been

Athenian Society in the 5th Century BC

In 5th century BC Athenian society, there were three distinct classes:

Citizens

This class was composed of free adult males who were children of Athenian parents during the time of Pericles (5th century BC). Citizens constituted the core of privileged people who possessed full political rights and were the only ones who could possess or acquire land in Attica.

In return, citizens were obliged to pay taxes, abide by and comply with all laws, and be mobilized for war. Among the citizens, there were significant differences in their wealth: first, members of noble families and then the townspeople formed by small farmers, traders, artisans, and sailors.

Metics

Metics means "cohabitation." Foreigners were free and...

Key Characters in Fuenteovejuna

Powerful Figures

• Commander Fernando Gómez: Portrayed as a feudal lord who believes his vassals belong to him. He behaves proudly, yet Lope de Vega also depicts him as a brave soldier.
• The Catholic Monarchs (RRCC): They appear functionally to dispense justice and legitimize the actions of the people. Their intervention corresponds to a stage procedure from the classical era known as Deus ex Machina, characterized by a god or important person resolving the conflict at the play's end. This is precisely what the Catholic Monarchs do.

The Collective Character of the People

While the people act as a collective character, it is important to distinguish a few key individuals:

• Frondoso: A loving, humble, and wise character.

Quattrocento Architecture: Brunelleschi and Alberti

Constructive Elements

• The arch
• The barrel vault, sometimes decorated with lacunars
• Columns and pilasters with classical orders
• The semi-dome
• Emphasis on central plans, symmetry, and regularity

Ornaments

• Medallions or roundels
• Rusticated blocks
• Garlands
• Balustered columns
• Shell motifs (conchas)
• Grotesques (fantastic mixtures of humans, animals, and plants)

Quattrocento Sculpture: Ghiberti and Donatello

Characterized by slenderness of proportion and linear elegance derived from the International Gothic style, with a taste for the anecdotal. There is a preference for sculpture in the round using marble and bronze, focusing on light, space, and volume.

• Sculpture becomes independent of architecture
• Great interest

Understanding the Summa Theologica: Context and Method

Context of the Summa Theologica Fragment

This fragment belongs to Part I, Question II, Article III of the Summa Theologica.

Thomas Aquinas's Theological Vision

The primary goal Thomas Aquinas had with this book was to create a theological synthesis that would make the most important problems of the moment accessible to those devoted to these studies. While the exact timing is not clear, its composition is substantially placed in the last years of his life.

His theology was inspired by the revealed word but focused on a system that took into account the logical laws of Aristotle's time. This approach led to the development of the quaestio, a fundamental element of scholastic inquiry.

The issues...

The 1936 Elections and the Rise of the Right

The 1936 election campaign showed that support for the right grew in the Canary Islands over the previous three years. But in reality, the left had won in seven out of twenty-two municipalities and secured victories in six island capitals (all except Puerto del Rosario).

The February elections were the last chance for the right-wing parties. They concluded that their ideology should prevail in the midst of a democratic leftist government. After the coup, more affluent groups automatically supported the military officers, some of whom had previously supported the establishment of the Republic.

Franco and the Anti-Republican Conspiracy

In April 1936, General Francisco Franco was the commanding general...

Government Crises Under Manuel Azaña

During Manuel Azaña's government, revolutionary general strikes began. These strikes were the mechanism by which the anarchists sought to carry out their revolutionary project.

Major Anarchist Strikes (1931–1933)

1. The Llobregat Basin Strike (Late 1931 – Early 1932): This strike, which was not highly significant in the long term, originated in the Llobregat Basin. It ended badly, dispersed by the Civil Guard and the Assault Guard. There were deaths, detentions, and imprisonments, but the movement was halted. Azaña disliked the idea that the anarchists were not supportive of his government.
2. The Casas Viejas Uprising (January 1933): This crisis originated in the town of Casas Viejas, Cádiz (Andalusia). The

Common Latin Phrases and Expressions

• Access: Approaching.
• Alea iacta est: The die is cast (luck is thrown).
• Audentes fortuna iuvat: Fortune favors the bold.
• Ars longa, vita brevis: Art is long, life is short.
• Cedant arma togae: Let the weapons yield to the toga.
• Carthago delenda est: Carthage must be destroyed.
• Dura lex sed lex: The law is harsh, but it is the law.
• Deficit: An economic term to denote a passive balance or losses.
• Ex aequo: Equally.
• Ex professo: Expressly.
• Ex cathedra: Used when someone speaks with great authority or very cultured language.
• Tempus fugit: Time flies, unrecoverable.
• Habitat: The natural environment that determines where a species lives.
• Homo homini lupus: Man is a wolf to man.
• In dubio pro reo: When in doubt, favor the accused.