Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Baccalaureate

Sodium Imbalance Sodium: primary cation in ECF Transport through cells by sodium-potassium pump Secreted into mucous and other secretions Hyponatremia Plasma sodium below 135 mEq/L Causes Losses from excessive sweating, vomiting, diarrhea Certain diuretic drugs with low salt diet Hormonal imbalances (low aldosterone, high ADH) Excessive water intake Effects Low sodium Decreases osmotic pressure in ECF Hypernatremia Plasma sodium above 145 mEq/L Causes Insufficient ADH Loss of thirst mechanism Watery diarrhea Prolonged periods of rapid respiration Ingesting large amounts of sodium without water balance Effects Weakness, headache Dry, rough mucous membranes Increased thirst Difficulty swallowing Cerebral edema: leads to seizures

Potassium Imbalance Potassium: primary cation

... Continue reading "Electrolyte Imbalances: Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium" »

Plasmids pBR322 and pUC18/19

pBR322

pBR322, developed in 1977, is a foundational plasmid in molecular biology. Key features include:

• Size: ~4,361 base pairs (bp)
• Origin of Replication: Allows independent replication within bacteria.
• Selection Markers:
  • ampR: Confers ampicillin resistance.
  • tetR: Confers tetracycline resistance.
• Cloning Sites: Multiple sites for inserting foreign DNA.
• Applications: Gene cloning, expression, and manipulation.

pUC18/19

pUC18/19, derived from pBR322 in the early 1980s, simplifies cloning. Key features include:

• Size: ~2,686 bp
• Origin of Replication: High-copy-number pMB1 ori for increased yield.
• Selection Marker:
  • lacZ: Beta-galactosidase gene; enables blue/white screening for insert identification.
• Cloning Sites: Multiple cloning

... Continue reading "Plasmids pBR322 and pUC18/19: Cloning Vectors" »

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Longest Substring Without Repeating Characters

This problem involves finding the length of the longest substring in a given string that does not contain any repeating characters. A common approach uses a sliding window technique with a Set to efficiently track unique characters.

Strategy:

• Utilize a Set to store characters within the current window.
• Iterate through the string with a right pointer, adding characters to the Set.
• If a duplicate character is encountered, move the left pointer forward, removing characters from the Set, until the duplicate is no longer present.
• At each step, update the maximum length found.

Java Implementation Snippet

class Solution {
    public int findLongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacter(String str) {
        Set&

... Continue reading "Array and String Algorithms: Core Problem Solutions" »

English Grammar

Verb Tenses

Past Tense Transformations

• Present Simple (eats/eat) → Past Simple (ate)
• Don't/Doesn't → Didn't
• Present Continuous (am, is, are + v ing) → Past Continuous (was, were + v ing)
• Past Simple (-ed or irregular) → Past Perfect (had + past participle)
• Present Perfect (have, has + past participle) → Past Perfect
• Past Perfect (had + past participle) → Past Perfect
• Past Continuous (was, were + v ing) → Past Perfect Continuous (had + been + v ing)
• Present Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous
• Past Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous
• Future: Will + infinitive → Would + infinitive
• Can → Could + infinitive
• Must/Have to → Had to + infinitive
• May → Might + infinitive

Changes in Reported Speech

• Now → Then
• Today

... Continue reading "English Grammar and Vocabulary Guide" »

Tutorial 1 If you get a positive value times a number, You need to shift the decimal to the right as many times as the number specified. If negative, move it to the right. Simple interest formula = S = FV = P(1 + iK) Compound interest formula = Sk = P(1 + i)^k Sn = P(1 + I/T)^n where I is interest T is frequency of compounding per year K is the number of years N is the total number of periods - K T or TK Depreciation Formula = Vo or P = Initial value, Vk = P(1 - d)^k

Tutorial 2 1. 5 years 1 + r = (FV/PV)^(1/5) (i) r = 10.38% (ii) r = 10.47% (iii) r = 10.51% (iv) r = 10.52% (v) r = 10.52% 2. 1 + r = (1 + 0.06/12)^8 ∙ (1 + 0.072/12)^4 1 + r = (1.005)^8 ∙ (1.006)^4 1 + r = (1.0407) ∙ (1.0242) = 1.06591 r = 6.59% For an initial outlay of $1000, the net return is

... Continue reading "Understanding Financial Formulas and Calculations" »

Distinctive Feature Theory

Distinctive Feature Theory challenges Phoneme Theory (PT) by focusing on the features that compose phonemes, rather than the phonemes themselves. This approach questions the validity of the phoneme concept, arguing that speech is not simply a series of discrete sounds.

Natural Class: A set of sounds sharing phonetic features, affected by the same environment, and having the same effect on surrounding sounds.

Major Class Features

• Vowels: [+SYLLABIC], [+SONORANT], [-CONSONANTAL] - form the syllable nucleus.
• Glides: [-SYLLABIC], [+SONORANT], [-CONSONANTAL].
• Sonorant Consonants (nasals and liquids): [+/-SYLLABIC], [+SONORANT], [+CONSONANTAL].
• Obstruents: [-SYLLABIC], [-SONORANT], [+CONSONANTAL].

Consonant Features

• Voice: [+/-VOICE]

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Orden of adjectives: O(opinion), S(size), SH(shape), A(age), C(colour), O(origin).
____________________________________________________
FUTURE:
-Will: Predictions, opinions, spontaneous, decisions.
-Be going to: plans for the future, intention of future, predictions with evidence.
-Present continuous: Arrangements(preparativos), dates(fechas).
-Future continuous: S+WILL+BE+GERUND. Finished action in the future.
-Future perfect: S+WILL+HAVE+PAST PART. Completed action in the future
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Such...that / So...that:
Such + (a/an [singular]) + adjective + noun + that
It was such a cramped street that we couldn't walk.
So + adjective + that
The street was so cramped that we couldn't walk.

Conditional sentences:

First... Continue reading "Orden of adjectives, future, conditional sentences and wishes and regrets in English" »

The play begins with the death of Bernarda's husband. After the Mass for the dead, the whole town goes to the widow's house, where women enter the room who have previously prepared and cleaned the maids. While men are chatting in the courtyard.
Already in the house, Bernarda makes all the neighbors whispering with his comments on whether their daughters deserve to men of that town, then they all begin to pray.
When everyone leaves, Bernarda's daughters begin to talk about the legacy his father left them. The one that takes the best part is the eldest daughter, Sorrows. The other sisters discuss the fate of Sorrows, as well as the heritage, the handsome-looking boy of the village, wants to marry her.
Then Adela begins to mourn for them imposed... Continue reading "Book Summary: The House of Bernarda Alba" »

Simón Bolívar had assumed command of the Puerto Cabello Square on May 4, 1812. A month later, on 6 June, it fell to the royalists. Faced with this loss and after signing the capitulation, Bolivar got through to Curacao and then to New Granada. There, the government recognized the rank of colonel and allowed their participation in the Campaign of Magdalena. On December 15, 1812 wrote his first document sets out the causes which led to the loss of the First Republic and warns neogranadinos on the need to unite to defeat the enemy. These causes by Bolivar were:
1. The tolerance scheme followed by the Republican authorities to consider how weak and ineffectual. He criticized the attitude of the government of Venezuela against Coro, claiming

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T Features The drama is one of the major literary genres. A conflict between one or more characters that are developed through diálogo.l theater receiver is presented in two ways: a) In one scenario, by action or entry scene obra.b) Through reading, as if it were a novel. This will lose items such as music, movement, etc.Así, this genre has the following basic features: • The rendering time is quite limited compared to the actual duration of the facts, so no can afford to delay. • The story line should capture the audience's attention throughout the performance. The most common resource to achieve this is to establish, from time to time, a high point or climax. • The theater is a mixture of linguistic and dramatic. The literary text

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