Spain's Late 19th Century: Restoration, Colonial Wars, and US Influence

The Spanish Restoration: Political Stability and Colonial Challenges

Cánovas sought to articulate a new model of liberalism, addressing the endemic issues of partisan and exclusionary moderate military intervention in politics and the proliferation of civil strife. His two primary objectives were:

• To develop a constitution that structured a two-party political system.
• To pacify the country by ending the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict.

The first step involved holding elections for a Constituent Cortes, as the 1869 Constitution had been terminated after the proclamation of the Republic. While the first elections of the new regime were conducted under universal suffrage, the system later reverted to censitary suffrage (restricted by property or income).

Cánovas introduced a system of government based on bipartisanship and the alternation in power of the two great dynastic parties: the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party. This Pact of El Pardo (or Pacific Turn Pact) ensured institutional stability through the peaceful alternation of power between the two political families. The army was subordinated to civil authority.

The Little War in Cuba (1879-1880)

In 1879, a fresh outbreak of insurrection against the Spanish presence on the island led to the Little War (La Guerra Chiquita). The uprising was defeated the following year due to a lack of support, insufficient weaponry, and the superiority of the Spanish army. However, the war proved unfavorable for Spanish soldiers, as it developed in the jungle against forces widely dispersed throughout the territory. Poor supply lines, lack of provisions, and tropical diseases caused great mortality among the troops, making victory an increasingly difficult goal to achieve.

Late 19th Century Colonial Conflicts and US Interests

After Cánovas's assassination, the new Liberal government removed General Valeriano Weyler from office and initiated a strategy of reconciliation, hoping to persuade the separatists to agree on a formula to maintain Spanish sovereignty and avoid conflict with the United States. The government decreed:

• Autonomy for Cuba
• Universal male suffrage
• Equal rights between islanders and peninsular Spaniards
• Tariff autonomy

However, these reforms came too late; the separatists refused to accept the end of hostilities, which had been unilaterally declared by the Spanish government.

The Philippine Revolution

Parallel to these events, a rebellion erupted in the Philippines. The colony had seen little Spanish immigration and maintained a low military presence. Spanish economic interests were significantly lower than in Cuba, though the Philippines were important for their tobacco production and as a gateway for trade with the Asian mainland. Filipino independence movements were forged in the formation of the Liga Filipina, founded by José Rizal. They garnered support from a faction of the mestizo bourgeoisie and indigenous groups. The return of Captain-General Camilo Polavieja led to a widespread policy of repression. The new Liberal government then appointed Captain-General Fernando Primo de Rivera, who promoted indirect negotiations that resulted in a temporary pacification of the archipelago.

Emerging US Interests in the Caribbean

The United States had initially focused its strategic interests on the Caribbean region. Its interest in Cuba had led to various proposals to purchase the island, all of which Spain had consistently rejected.