Revolutions & Unifications in Europe & America

American, French, and Greek Revolutions

The American Revolution (1776), the French Revolution (1789), and the Greek Revolution (1821) occurred under different conditions. However, the circumstances for both the American and French revolutions were ideal for revolutionary change.

The Congress of Vienna

Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain participated in the Congress of Vienna. They:

• Returned frontiers to France
• Restored legitimate monarchs to every European country
• Established a balance of power
• Agreed to intervene in internal conflicts if a monarch was in danger

Italian Unification

At the Congress of Vienna, Italy was organized into seven states. A revolutionary group dedicated to the unification of Italy, the Risorgimento, was led by Mazzini. After a war against Austria, Mazzini and Garibaldi returned from exile and defeated the Austrians. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of the newly unified Italy, which became a constitutional monarchy.

German Unification

After the Congress of Vienna, Germany was divided into 39 states, belonging to Prussia and Austria. The first step toward union was when some states formed the Zollverein. Otto von Bismarck guided the unification. After that, the Second Reich was declared, with King Wilhelm as Kaiser.

Ferdinand VII's Reign

Ferdinand VII, an absolutist monarch, returned to Spain and was declared king. He sent General Riego to crush the rebellion in the colonies. Instead, Riego rose up and obligated the king to reinstate the Constitution. European powers, alarmed, decided at the Congress of Verona that France should help Spain. Later, Ferdinand revoked the Constitution and installed a repressive government with absolute power until the end of his reign. During this period, Spain lost most of its colonies except for Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and other islands.

Isabella II's Reign and the Liberal State

Ferdinand died when Isabella was three, and his mother took the crown as regent. The dispute between Isabella (with the Isabelinos) and Carlos (with the Carlists) developed into a civil war. When she was 13, Isabella was crowned queen of Spain. Spain became a liberal state, and the feudal system was abolished. A new system of provinces was put into practice. This period ended with a rebellion, after which Isabella went into exile.