Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Physics for University

Key Physics Concepts

KEY CONCEPTS

• 1. Law: An object stays in uniform motion unless a net force acts.
• 2. Law: Acceleration is proportional to net force and inversely proportional to mass.
• 3. Law: Forces come in equal and opposite pairs.
• Conservation of Energy: Total mechanical energy remains constant if no non-conservative forces act.
• Conservation of Momentum: Total momentum stays constant in isolated systems.
• Archimedes: Buoyant force equals the weight of displaced fluid.
• Bernoulli: Faster fluid → lower pressure; slower fluid → higher pressure.
• Pascal: Pressure applied to a fluid transmits equally everywhere.
• Electric Field: Region where a charge experiences force.
• Potential Difference (Voltage): Energy per charge.
• Current: Rate of charge flow.
• Resistance:

Physical Quantities and Measurement

A physical quantity is a property of a body or phenomenon that can be measured and expressed by a number and a unit (e.g., 5 m, 10 s, 3 kg). It allows us to describe physical laws quantitatively. A physical quantity is defined either by specifying how it is measured or by stating how it is calculated from other measurable quantities.

Key Measurement Concepts

• Unit of measurement: A standard reference used for comparing quantities of the same kind (e.g., meter for length, second for time).
• Direct measurement: The quantity is measured directly using an instrument (e.g., measuring length with a ruler).
• Indirect measurement: The quantity is obtained from other measurements using a mathematical relationship (e.g., calculating

44. (a) The Young’s modulus is given by

(b) Since the linear range of the curve extends to about 2.9 × 10⁸ N/m², this is approximately the yield strength for the material.

46. Since the force is (stress × area) and the displacement is (strain × length), we can write the work integral (eq. 7-32) as

  W =

  = A (differential strain)L  = AL (differential strain)

which means the work is  (wire-area) × (wire-length) × (graph-area-under-curve).  Since the area of a triangle (see the graph in the problem statement) is  (base)(height)  then we determine the work done to be

            W = (2.00 x 10^-6 m²)(0.800 m)(1.0 × 10^-3)(7.0 × 10⁷ N/m²) = 0.0560 J .

48. 46. Since the force is (stress × area) and the displacement is (strain...

Light Propagation as a Wave

Light is defined as the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to the human eye, with wavelengths ranging between 3800 and 7600 Å (1 Å = 10^-10 m). As a transverse wave, light propagates through a vacuum and transparent media. When propagating, light exhibits characteristic wave behaviors:

• Uniform Media: Light travels in straight lines.
• Boundary Interaction: Light reflects at the interface between two media.
• Refraction: Light changes direction when passing between media with different propagation speeds.
• Wave Phenomena: Light experiences interference, diffraction, and polarization.

For convenience in geometric optics, we represent light using light rays, which indicate the direction of energy propagation. We...

Vector Mechanics and Statics

Scalar product: a · b = |A| |B| · cos(θ)

Projection of vector b onto a: P_a b = (a · b) / |A| · a / |A|

Moment of force about a point: M₀ = OA × F

Reduction of Force Systems

Reduction to a new center: M_p = M₀ + PO × R (where R is the backbone/resultant force and PO is the vector from the new point to the original center).

Force-couple system: F_tot = R_system → M₀ = M_pair.

Newton's Laws of Motion

• 1st Law: A particle on which no forces act (or R = 0) will maintain a constant velocity (v = constant).
• 2nd Law: A particle subjected to an experimental force undergoes acceleration.
• 3rd Law: If body A exerts a force on body B, body B returns a force of the same magnitude and opposite direction.

Classification of Unranked Force

Wave Reflection Study

Purpose

To study the reflection of a plane wave, generated by a wave source, off different obstacles.

Planning

1. Position the right triangle reflector in the form of a right angle.
2. Generate plane waves incident upon the reflector.
3. Affix paper to the table. Use a ruler to draw one or more lines to show the front of the incident wave and the reflected wave front. Ensure the ruler is parallel to the corresponding disturbance.
4. Trace the position of the reflective barrier.
5. Repeat steps for two other positions of the triangle.

Part 2: Reflection in a Curved Obstacle

1. Trace the circular barrier on a new sheet of paper.
2. Mark the position where the reflected waves converge.
3. Turn off the generator. Use your fingertip to produce a circular pulse

Electrostatic:
He studied electrical phenomena caused by static charge distributions, ie the electrostatic field of a charged body.

Gauss's law
Gauss's law says that the net electric flux c, through any Gaussian surface is equal to the net charge enclosed within the surface divided by "0:
Using Gauss's law, one can calculate the electric field due to several symmetric charge distributions.
Typical electric fields calculated using Gauss's law
Insulating sphere of radius R, uniform density and total charge Q
With r> R
With r <R
Thin spherical shell of radius R and total charge Q
With r> R
With r <R
Load lines of infinite length and charge per unit length
Outside the load line
Nonconducting infinite plane loaded with load...

Material Properties and Heat Treatment

• 2.1: Toughness
• 2.2: 14 × 10⁴, 90 × 10⁴
• 2.3: Stiffness
• 2.4: Toughness
• 2.5: Hardness
• 2.6: Malleability
• 2.7: 3–4% Carbon
• 2.8: Grey cast iron with ultimate tensile strength 300 N/mm²
• 2.9: Plain carbon steel (0.35–0.45% C, 0.7–0.9% Mn)
• 2.10: Mild steel
• 2.11: Less than 0.3% carbon
• 2.12: Sulphur
• 2.13: Chromium
• 2.14: Chromium
• 2.15: Above upper critical temperatures, cooled in still air
• 2.16: Case-hardening
• 2.17: Cyaniding
• 2.18: Case-carburising

Manufacturing and Tolerances

• 3.1: Aluminium
• 3.2: Fibre lines arranged in a predetermined way
• 3.3: Very small fillet radius
• 3.4: Easy removal of forged part from die cavities
• 3.5: Tolerances given on both positive and negative sides
• 3.6: Tolerance zone of hole and shaft overlap
• 3.7:

Polygon Rendering Methods Defined

• Polygon rendering methods are techniques used to calculate how 3D polygon surfaces appear when displayed on a 2D screen.
• They decide the distribution of light, color, and intensity on polygonal faces for realistic visualization.
• These methods control how smooth, bright, or sharp the surfaces look after illumination.
• They help convert geometric data into shaded, visible surfaces through lighting equations.
• These methods balance image quality and computational speed in computer graphics applications.

Types of Polygon Rendering Methods

Constant Intensity Shading (Flat Shading)

• Lighting is calculated once for the entire polygon, giving one uniform color.
• Produces a faceted appearance, where individual polygons are clearly

Santa Maria degli Angeli (Florence)

(Demolished after 3 years)

• Blended integration and relation of elements.
• Centralized floorplan: Representing an aesthetic ideal and an expression of the order of the universe – absolute symmetry.
• Surrounded by a world of well-proportioned beauty.
• Relation with Villa Rotonda; centralized building as a key urban form.

Michelozzo: Palazzo Medici (Florence)

• An urban palace where the facade is an important aspect.
• The wall treatment softens and smooths in the upper levels, representing the wealth of the Medici family.
• Exterior conveys solemnity, giving higher status to the city as well.
• Features a very heavy cornice at the top.

Leon Battista Alberti: Theory and Practice

• Had extensive contact with Florentine Humanists; friend