Understanding Semantics: Meaning, Polysemy, and Lexical Change

1.1. Denotation and Connotation

Denotation is the core, literal meaning a term holds for a linguistic community. Connotation refers to the additional expressive or subjective meanings added by speakers in different contexts. These connotations can be cultural or subjective.

3.1. Polysemy

Polysemy refers to the plurality of meanings associated with a single sign.

Example: The word "set" may refer to a fixed-price lunch menu, a collection of dishes, or specific operations on a computer.

Polysemy also affects other linguistic units:

• Morphemes
• Phrases and sentences
• Texts

3.2. Homonymy

Homonymy is the relationship between signs that share the same signifier but possess different meanings. Examples include "mi" (musical note), "mi" (possessive adjective), and "mi" (personal pronoun).

4.3. Hyperonymy, Hyponymy, and Cohyponymy

These terms refer to the hierarchical relationships within a set of words:

• Hyperonym: The generic term.
• Hyponym: The subordinate terms.
• Cohyponymy: The relationship between hyponyms sharing the same hyperonym.

5.1. Semantic Fields

A semantic field is a set of lexical items that share a common sense while contrasting with one another. These fields can be categorized as:

• Closed fields
• Open fields
• Gradual fields
• Anatomical fields

Classification of Loanwords

• Arabisms: Oil, mayor, alcohol, sugar.
• Anglicisms: Club, leader, film, test.
• Gallicisms: Gala, lady, toll, garden.
• Italianisms: Gazette, clown, soprano, trio.
• Lusismos: Diver, oyster, mussel, jam.
• Germanisms: Rico, war, nazi, Kaiser.
• Americanisms: Cacique, hurricane, chalk, canoe.
• Galicianisms: Wanderlust, muñeira, crepe, albariño.
• Catalanisms: Esquirol, stranger, farmhouse, barracks.
• Basquisms: Left, guiri, scrap, chorizo.
• Gypsy: Chaval, painful, chori, Cal.
• Other languages: Karaoke, kamikaze, kimono, kiwi.

7. Semantic Change

Semantic changes in words may be due to historical, psychological, social, or linguistic causes.

7.1. Historical Causes

The invention of new objects, changes in institutions, or shifts in ideas and concepts result in changes of meaning. Many modern neologisms arise from the influence of foreign languages through the process of calquing.