Spain's 19th Century Upheaval: Independence, Liberalism, and Dynastic Wars

The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)

The early 19th century in Spain was marked by significant political upheaval. Manuel Godoy, the Spanish Prime Minister, signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Napoleon in 1807, which allowed French troops to cross Spain to invade Portugal. This ultimately led to the French invasion of Spain itself and Napoleon's imposition of his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King Joseph I of Spain.

Key Events Leading to Conflict:

• March 17, 1808: Mutiny of Aranjuez – A popular uprising forced King Charles IV to abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII, and led to Godoy's exile.
• May 2, 1808: Uprising in Madrid (Dos de Mayo) – A spontaneous popular revolt against the French occupation was brutally suppressed by General Murat's forces, resulting in hundreds of casualties.

The War of Independence: Spain's Fight for Sovereignty

The brutal repression of the Dos de Mayo uprising ignited the Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814), a conflict that pitted Spain, allied with Portugal and Great Britain, against Napoleonic France. This war was characterized by:

• Guerrilla Warfare: Small, irregular Spanish units effectively harassed and disrupted French supply lines and communications.
• Ideological Division: The Spanish population was divided between Francophiles (or Afrancesados), who supported Joseph I and French reforms, and patriots, who championed Spanish nationalism and the return of Ferdinand VII.

Major Battles and Turning Points:

• Battle of Bailén (July 1808): A significant Spanish victory where General Castaños's forces defeated and captured a French army, boosting Spanish morale and forcing Joseph I to temporarily abandon Madrid.
• Battle of Salamanca (July 1812): Also known as the Battle of Arapiles, this decisive victory for the Anglo-Portuguese-Spanish forces led by the Duke of Wellington severely weakened French control over Spain.
• Battle of Vitoria (June 1813): Another crucial victory for the allied forces, which effectively ended French military presence in Spain and forced Joseph I to flee.
• Battle of San Marcial (August 1813): A final major engagement where Spanish forces repelled a French attempt to relieve San Sebastián, marking the end of significant French resistance in the Iberian Peninsula.

The Cortes of Cádiz and the Constitution of 1812

Amidst the war, a provisional government, the Supreme Central Junta, convened the Cortes of Cádiz (1810-1814) in the besieged city of Cádiz. This legislative body, composed of diverse representatives including military officials, clergy, and intellectuals, drafted a groundbreaking liberal constitution.

Key Provisions of the Constitution of 1812 ("La Pepa"):

• Promulgated on March 19, 1812.
• Established indirect universal male suffrage.
• Guaranteed freedom of the press.
• Abolished the Spanish Inquisition.
• Advocated for land distribution and freedom of industry.
• Instituted the division of executive, legislative, and judicial powers.
• Declared Catholicism as the official state religion.
• Empowered a national militia.

Despite its progressive nature, Ferdinand VII, upon his return to Spain in 1814, immediately abolished the Constitution and reestablished absolute monarchy.

Ferdinand VII's Reign and the Liberal-Absolutist Struggle (1814-1833)

Ferdinand VII's return ushered in a period of intense political instability, characterized by a struggle between absolutist and liberal factions.

The Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820)

Ferdinand VII's first period of rule was marked by the suppression of liberal reforms and the restoration of the Old Regime. However, the post-war crisis and economic hardship fueled widespread discontent among the middle class and military officers.

• 1820 Uprising: A military uprising led by General Rafael del Riego, known as the "Army of the Island," forced Ferdinand VII to reluctantly restore the Constitution of 1812.

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

During this brief liberal interlude, the restored Constitution was implemented, but the liberal program faced strong opposition from absolutist forces. Liberals themselves were divided into 'progressives' (exaltados) and 'moderates' (doceañistas).

• French Intervention: In 1823, Ferdinand VII, with the aid of the Holy Alliance, secured the intervention of France. The Duke of Angoulême led the "Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis" to restore Ferdinand's absolute power.
• Despite the absolutist restoration, some attempts were made to improve the economy, including taxing nobles and clergy.

The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

This final period of Ferdinand VII's reign saw a return to strict absolutism, though with some pragmatic reforms. While some liberals collaborated with the regime, hardline absolutists, known as 'Apostólicos,' grew increasingly discontented, placing their hopes in Ferdinand's brother, Don Carlos María Isidro.

• Succession Crisis: Ferdinand VII married Maria Christina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. To ensure the succession of their daughter, Isabella, he issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1830, which nullified the Salic Law (which had prevented female succession). This act sparked a dynastic conflict.

The First Carlist War (1833-1840)

Upon Ferdinand VII's death in 1833, the First Carlist War erupted. This civil war pitted the Carlists (supporters of Don Carlos and absolute monarchy) against the Isabelinos (supporters of Isabella II and a more liberal monarchy).

• The Isabelinos ultimately won the war.
• Isabella II's mother, Maria Christina, and later General Baldomero Espartero, served as regents until Isabella came of age and was proclaimed queen.