The Rise of Global Imperialism and Colonialism (1870–1914)

Imperialism and the Second Industrial Revolution

Imperialism emerged during the last third of the nineteenth century, driven by the Second Industrial Revolution. European powers began expanding across the globe, establishing vast colonial empires, particularly in Africa and Asia.

Key Causes of 19th Century Colonialism

The drive for colonialism was multifaceted, encompassing economic, demographic, political, and ideological factors:

• Economic: The need for cheap raw materials, inexpensive labor, and the opening of new markets for industrial goods.
• Demographic: European overpopulation led many families to migrate to colonies in Africa and elsewhere seeking a better life.
• Political: Powers sought to dominate areas of economic and strategic interest, enhancing national prestige.
• Ideological (Nationalism and Racism): Nationalist sentiments defended the right of superior nations to rule others. Europeans believed they were culturally and technologically superior, justifying a “civilizing mission” that often derived into overt racism.

Exploration and Conquest in the 19th Century

In the 19th century, much of Africa and Asia remained unknown to Europeans. This favored colonialism, facilitated by the journeys of scientists and explorers, such as David Livingstone and Henry Stanley, who geographically mapped Central Africa.

Organization of Colonial Empires

Colonial territories were organized in different ways, depending on the level of control exerted by the dominating country (the Metropolis):

• Exploitation Colonies: The Metropolis operated the economy of the occupied territory (colony) and ruled directly. White settler families often installed themselves there to create plantations and mines.
• Settler Colonies: Colonies established with a significant white population. They depended on the Metropolis but were granted self-government (e.g., Canada and Australia).
• Protectorates: Territories occupied by the Metropolis, which maintained its existing organization and local authorities, though these authorities were represented by the colonial power.

The Berlin Conference of 1885 was crucial for formally distributing and partitioning Africa among the European powers.

Major Colonial Powers and Territories

Great Britain held the greatest colonial power, controlling the largest empire in the world. It controlled territories running north-to-south in Africa, and its main colony was India. Britain also controlled vital global shipping lanes.

The second major power was France, which held extensive colonies, especially in North Africa and Southeast Asia.

Other nations that possessed colonial territories included Russia, the Netherlands, Portugal, Germany, Italy, Belgium (which colonized the Congo), and Spain.

US and Japanese Expansion (Late 19th Century)

The United States, following the war with Spain in 1898, acquired the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. It also occupied Panama to construct a transoceanic canal.

Japan expanded its influence, occupying the Kurile Islands, Korea, and Formosa (Taiwan).

Colonial Holdings in Asia

The northern half of Asia was largely occupied by the Russians. The British controlled Burma, Singapore, Malaysia, and Hong Kong, while the French took Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia).

Socio-Cultural Consequences of Colonialism

Colonialism brought significant changes to the occupied territories:

• Infrastructure and Health: The construction of infrastructure, expansion of cultivation land, creation of hospitals, and implementation of hygiene measures and vaccines increased life expectancy, although often coupled with inadequate food supplies.
• Education and Culture: Schools were built, but they primarily imposed the language and culture of the Metropolis. Colonists also attempted to impose Christianity and European customs.

Economic Transformations and Exploitation

Colonists imposed their economic interests, leading to severe transformations:

• Lands were transferred to settlers.
• Production focused on large plantations for cash crops (e.g., cocoa, coffee) sent directly to the Metropolis.
• Traditional crops cultivated by indigenous populations were replaced.
• The imposition of European currency and the capitalist economy ruined local economies.
• Local crafts were destroyed by the massive arrival of cheap industrial products from Europe.

Key Chronology: 1870–1914

• 1870: Second Industrial Revolution begins.
• 1875: Queen Victoria I is proclaimed Empress of India.
• 1882: Formation of the Triple Alliance.
• 1885: Scramble for Africa intensifies (Berlin Conference).
• 1898: United States defeats Spain.
• 1907: Formation of the Triple Entente.
• 1912–1913: Balkan Wars.
• 1912: Assassination in Sarajevo (Note: Historically, this event occurred in 1914, triggering WWI).

Definitions and World War I Alliances

• Metropolis: The dominating country that controls a colony.
• Colony: The occupied territory ruled by a Metropolis.
• Racism: Discrimination against indigenous people because the colonists considered themselves superior to them.
• World War I (WWI): An armed conflict that took place between 1914 and 1918, involving nearly every country in the world. Over 10 million people died, with 32 countries involved.

Major Alliances of WWI

The conflict pitted two major alliance systems against each other:

• The Triple Entente: France, Great Britain, and Russia.
• The Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.