Restoration Europe and the Rise of Liberalism

Political Restoration in Post-Napoleonic Europe

With the fall of Napoleon, three key facts emerged:

• Restoration: The return of the Kings to the European thrones they occupied before Napoleon's conquests.
• Congress of Vienna (1815): A meeting of representatives from European countries to establish a new territorial division. Primarily, France lost its Napoleonic gains, while other European states expanded their territories.
• Holy Alliance: A pact between Russia, Prussia, and Austria (later joined by France and Spain) to provide mutual help and decide intervention if a new revolution occurred.

The Ideological Landscape: Liberalism and Nationalism

Liberalism was maintained, especially among the liberals and the bourgeoisie. Their primary demands included:

• Parliamentary Monarchy: A system where the monarch's power is limited.
• Division of Powers: A government structured with separate branches.
• National Sovereignty: The establishment of a Constitution.
• Individual Rights: The state must guarantee the rights of all individuals.
• Economic Freedom: The right to property and minimal state intervention in the economy.

The Emergence of Democratic Liberalism

In addition to these claims, Democratic Liberalism arose, advocating for:

• Universal suffrage.
• A Republican scheme of government.
• The right to workers' associations.

New Cultural and Political Ideologies

Two new ideologies appeared during this period:

• Romanticism: Although primarily a cultural movement, it defended individual freedom.
• Nationalism: Generally a "national" reaction to the occupation by Napoleon. It argues that common features, such as language, history, and tradition, entitle a territory to become a nation, which in turn implies the right to create a state.

Structural Causes of the Revolution

Economic and Social Factors

• State Crisis: The Kings' luxury and the state's financial needs led to a heavy reliance on credit from bankers.
• Social Contradiction: The Bourgeoisie possessed the money (including loans to Kings) but lacked political power and social privileges.
• Enlightenment Influence: The influence of Enlightenment ideas and the liberal revolution models already established in England and America.

Immediate Triggers of the Crisis

The King proposed that the nobles and the clergy pay taxes to tackle the financial crisis. When they refused, the King convened the Estates-General—a sort of assembly of estates that had not met for 175 years.

Development of the Revolution

Phase 1: The Estates-General (May-June 1789)

Clashes occurred with the Third Estate, which intended to use the meeting to achieve the political transformations of Liberalism. The Third Estate representatives met on their own to take joint positions. When the King closed their meeting room, they met at the Tennis Court (the ball game room) and took an oath to remain united until they achieved the principles of liberalism.