Latin Origins, Word Formation and Semantics in Spanish: A Complete Linguistic Breakdown

Origin of the Lexicon

Most of the Spanish lexicon comes from Latin, although it also includes words from other languages. Depending on their evolution, words can be classified as follows:

Types of Words by Origin

• Patrimonial words: they have existed since the origins of the language and have undergone phonetic changes over time until today.
• Cultisms: Latin words that entered directly into the language, often belatedly, and remain unchanged. Some are also loans.
• Doublets: a Latin word that gives rise to two words: one patrimonial and one cultism.
• Loanwords: words introduced from other languages into our own. They are usually adapted to the pronunciation of our language or kept in their original form.
• Neologisms: new words that enter the language either due to new creations or because other languages are used.
• Xenisms: foreign terms that have not yet been assimilated and keep their original form, looking similar to the pronunciation of their origin.

Denotation and Connotation

A word is a linguistic sign composed of a signifier and a signified.

• Denotative meaning: objective and common to all speakers. It is the meaning found in dictionaries.
• Connotative meaning: subjective meanings that speakers attach to words. It is related to the linguistic context or communicative situation.

Semantic Relations

1. Monosemy

A signifier with only one meaning. It is denotative and frequently appears in scientific and technical language.

2. Polysemy

One signifier corresponds to several meanings. The specific meaning is determined by the linguistic context. Dictionaries group the various meanings in a single entry, which helps avoid the proliferation of vocabulary.

3. Homonymy

Same signifier with different meanings. The words have different origins and therefore appear in different dictionary entries. Homonyms can be:

• Homophones: same sound, different spelling.
• Homographs: identical spelling.

4. Synonymy

Different signifiers with partially or completely identical meanings. It can be:

• Partial synonymy: identical only in some contexts.
• Total synonymy: identical in all contexts.

5. Antonymy

Different signifiers with opposite meanings. There are three classes of opposites:

• a. Gradual: based on gradation.
• b. Complementary: the affirmation of one implies the negation of the other.
• c. Reciprocal: one implies the other with an opposite meaning.

6. Hyperonymy

A word with a significantly broader extension that includes another. It is a generalization.

7. Hyponymy

A word with a meaning of narrower extension. It is a concretion.

Semantic Changes

Over time, words undergo semantic changes: they may specialize, narrow, or acquire new meanings. These changes can be caused by:

• Linguistic causes: ellipsis, as in mobile (mobile phone) or portátil (portable computer).
• Historical causes: for example, pluma (fountain pen).
• Social causes: taboo words are replaced by euphemisms, such as saying "pass away" instead of "die".
• Psychological causes: associations of similarity, such as metaphor (the spider as a crane), and association of proximity, such as metonymy (the crown for the monarchy).

Lexicon and Morphology

A word is an independent linguistic unit formed by one or more morphemes, delimited in writing by spaces. Morphemes are the parts of a word with meaning. They are classified as:

• Lexical morpheme: the root or basic nucleus of the word.
• Grammatical morpheme: expresses grammatical meaning and serves to modify or relate.

Grammatical morphemes can be:

• Dependent: derivational and inflectional.
• Independent: determiners, pronouns, conjunctions and prepositions.

Word Formation Procedures

The procedures used to form words are based on the combination of morphemes:

• Derivation: lexeme + derivational morpheme. Derived words can also carry inflectional morphemes (gender and number).
  • Prefixes: placed before the lexeme, modifying meaning without changing the word category.
  • Suffixes: placed after the lexeme and can change the word category.
  • Infixes: a suffix placed inside the lexeme between two or more morphemes.
• Composition: simple or compound words formed by two or more lexemes that may carry inflectional morphemes. Compound words can be formed by joining two or more independent words.

Compounding may result in several cases: the elements remain unchanged, the last letter of the first lexeme is lost or modified, or the elements are joined with a linking element.

Parasynthesis: the combination of prefix + root + suffix, where removing the prefix or the suffix leaves a word that does not exist.

Cultured Compounds and Phrases

Words formed from Latin or Greek lexemes are called cultured compounds. Phrase compounds are equivalent to a noun phrase expressing a single concept.

Other Word Formation Procedures

• Acronyms: formed by the initial letters or groups of letters of several words. They may be pronounced as words.
• Abbreviations: informal shortening of long words.

Oral Communication

Oral and Written Language

Oral and written language are two different codes with different textual contexts and functions. They are used in different situations.

Oral communication shares characteristics with spoken language: it involves the physical and social presence of the speakers, who construct the text together. The situation is explicit and the exchange is spontaneous. The speaker may rectify or erase what they said, but the message is fleeting.

Informal oral codes include non-verbal elements: intonation, voice, silences, timbre, laughter, gestures, kinesics, distance (proxemics), exclamatory and interrogative sentences, hesitations, colloquial expressions, and reactions of the receiver.

Oral Text Genres

• a) Spontaneous oral texts: conversation.
• b) Planned oral texts: speeches, preferably with the intervention of the interlocutors.
• c) Singular oral texts (one person): lectures.
• d) Dual, plural or dialogued oral texts: debates, colloquies, informal talks.

Spontaneous Oral Communication: Conversation

Conversation is an unplanned exchange between two or more people, constructed through the contributions of the participants. It is governed by the principles of cooperation and courtesy.

• Cooperation principles: the amount of information, quality, relevance, and manner.
• Courtesy principles: not imposing, offering options, and strengthening ties of closeness.

Oral conversation follows routines such as how to start and end a conversation, greeting formulas, and turn-taking.

Planned Oral Communication: Speeches

The structure and characteristics of planned oral language are:

• Unidirectional: the issuer is the master of the text and must meet formal requirements.
• Multiple receivers, who do not need broad prior knowledge of the topic.
• Planning and a formal register.

The structure of a planned speech is:

1. Introduction: greeting and presentation of the topic.
2. Development: orderly exposition that may include arguments, examples and repetitions of ideas.
3. Conclusion: a brief, clear and concise synthesis.

Linguistic and extralinguistic features include verbs in the present tense, formal register vocabulary with abstract nouns and technicalities, and attention to body posture, facial and hand expressiveness, controlled gestures, and natural attitude. Pay attention to clear pronunciation, rhythm, intonation and adequate volume, as well as fluent expression.

Types of Planned Oral Texts

• Lecture: a dissertation on a topic of scientific or cultural content, given by a specialist for educational or informative purposes.
• Speech: a solemn character, of a general nature.
• Oral report: an exposition of data or events, often with graphs, used in companies or institutions. It presents clear and concrete objective conclusions or proposals.

Other types include: lecture (ponencia), sermon, rally, and academic situations such as exams, oral presentations or competitive examinations.

Debate

A planned oral exchange of opinions on a topic, with the purpose of analyzing a topic from different viewpoints. Participants include:

• Moderator: introduces the topic, organizes turns, summarizes or clarifies, and synthesizes the conclusion.
• Secretary: takes notes.
• Participants: must take care of the content, the use of language (avoiding slang), respect the rules of turn-taking, and avoid false arguments and disqualifications.

Other Forms of Oral Exchange

• Colloquy: a meeting to exchange opinions on a topic.
• Round table: a meeting of experienced people on a topic of common interest who share their opinions.