The Ancien Régime, Enlightenment, and Revolutions

The Ancien Régime

The Ancien Régime (AR) was the organizational form of politics, society, and economy in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, although most of its defining characteristics came to fruition in the 18th century. At the head of the political system was an absolute monarch, who held state power. Below him were the privileged groups (nobility and clergy) and the Third Estate. Economically, agriculture and livestock were still the most important activities, which meant that economic conditions were very poor. In short, the AR was an heir to the medieval estate system.

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was a stream of thought that was born in Britain in the 17th century at the hands of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. In the 18th century, the French *philosophes*, under the direction of Diderot and D'Alembert, produced the *Encyclopédie* (1751-1772). Others, like Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu, spoke in a more political and social tone. The Enlightenment was characterized by:

• The belief that the use of reason would solve all social, political, and economic problems.
• A critical stance towards the society of their time, which they considered backward.
• Rejection of revelation and tradition because they thought they were signs of darkness, in contrast to the light of reason.
• Frequent attacks on the Church in their writings.
• The belief that human history was a story of progress.
• The belief that men are born free, and that society and human progress were based on this.

Political Support of the Ancien Régime

A very hierarchical society like the Old Regime had to have powerful political and religious support. The dominant political system in most major European and Asian states was absolute monarchy, a hereditary form linked to a dynasty. The absolute monarch presented the following features:

• Embodied the integrity of the state and all political power, concentrated in his person through representatives and administrators, creating, implementing, and enforcing the laws.
• Was an aristocrat, a primus inter pares within the nobility.
• Had strong religious support, since it was felt that God was the source of the king's power.
• His power had barely any legal limits. Assemblies still existed in Europe where the estates met. As the power of kings grew, the calling of the Estates-General became less frequent.
• Had an increasingly permanent, expensive, and professional army and administration. To receive funding, the monarch created new taxes or requested loans from certain individuals.

The American Revolution

• 1765: The unpopular Stamp Act became law. Any publication in the 13 colonies needed a stamp to be legal and had to pay a tax. Pitt the Elder, an English politician, managed to abolish this tax.
• 1767: New taxes were very harmful to the sale and consumption of tea, lead, and sugar.
• 1773: Boston Tea Party. Colonists disguised as Native Americans stormed ships of the East India Company, which had a monopoly on tea, and threw boxes of tea into the sea.
• 1774: The 1st Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia, where representatives of the 13 states met and drafted a declaration of rights.
• 1775: The first clash between colonists and the English army.
• July 4, 1776: Approval of the independence of the 13 colonies; Independence Day.
• 1777: The Battle of Saratoga, an important battle in which the colonists defeated the English army.
• 1779: Spain decides to support the independence of the colonies.
• 1781: The British army surrendered at the Battle of Yorktown.
• 1783: The Peace of Versailles. The 13 colonies become independent, with George Washington as commander-in-chief.
• September 17, 1787: Promulgation of the U.S. Constitution, although it would not be fully ratified until 1789.

Chronology of the French Revolution

• 1789: Creation of the National Constituent Assembly.
• 1791: Adoption of a constitution (monarchical).
• 1792: Government of the Convention and proclamation of the Republic.
• 1793: Adoption of a constitution (radical republican).
• 1794: Coup d'état of Thermidor.
• 1795: Adoption of a constitution (moderate republican).
• 1799: Coup of 18 Brumaire and the beginning of Napoleon's government.
• 1804: Proclamation of Napoleon as Emperor.
• 1815: Defeat of Napoleon.