Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Physics for Primary education

Reflection of Light

Reflection is one of the unique properties of light. It is the reflection of light, which enables us to see any object.

Reflection: The bouncing back of rays of light from a polished and shiny surface is called reflection or reflection of light.

Laws of Reflection of light: The angle of incidence and angle of reflection is equal. The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the point of reflection lie in the same plane.

The angle of incidence is denoted by 'i' and angle of reflection is denoted by 'r'. The law of reflection is applicable to all types of reflecting surface.

Mirror and Reflection of Light: Mirror is a shiny polished object (glass) which reflects most of the rays of light falling upon it. One side of mirror is...

Simple Harmonic Motion and Waves

Vibrations and Frequency

At the equilibrium position of a mass attached to a spring, the velocity reaches a maximum.

Frequency is the number of cycles or vibrations per unit of time for a system in simple harmonic motion.

Sound and Pitch

The perceived highness or lowness of a sound is known as pitch.

The Doppler Effect

The Doppler Effect applies to all types of waves.

Electromagnetic Spectrum and Television

Radio waves are the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum utilized in television technology.

Electromagnetic Radiation in a Vacuum

In a vacuum, electromagnetic radiation of short wavelengths travels at the same speed as radiation of long wavelengths.

Mirrors and Refraction

Image Formation by a Flat Mirror

A flat mirror

Understanding Electrostatics

Electrostatics is the branch of physics that studies the phenomena produced by charges that do not vary or move.

History of Electrostatics

6th century BC: The Greeks discovered the electrical properties of amber. When rubbed, it could attract light objects.

18th century: Benjamin Franklin conducted experiments with different materials and observed that rubbed materials could either attract or repel each other.

Franklin's Theory of Electricity

• There are only two types of electricity: positive and negative.
• Electricity is a sort of fluid present in all objects and it can flow from one object to another by rubbing them.
• When there's an excess of electricity, objects have positive electricity, and when there's a lack of electricity,

Fundamentals of HVAC Duct Systems

• Pressure Measurement: Duct system pressure is measured in inches of water column (in. WC).
• Blower Function: The blower creates pressure to force air through the duct system, conditioning equipment, and into the room.
• Atmospheric Pressure: Standard atmospheric pressure is 14.696 psi.
• Manometer Usage: A manometer measures air velocity pressure in a duct.
• Airflow Measurement Tools: Anemometers or velometers are commonly used to measure airflow in air distribution systems.
• Airflow Check: Airflow can be checked by feeling it 2-3 feet from a register.
• Forced-Air vs. Natural-Draft: Forced-air systems use a blower, unlike natural-draft systems.
• Duct Pressure Components: Duct pressure equals velocity pressure plus static pressure.

The Beer-Lambert Law

The Beer-Lambert law describes the linear relationship between the absorbance of light and the concentration of an absorbing species. The relationship is defined by the formula: A = εlc, where:

• A is the absorbance (unitless).
• ε is the molar absorptivity or extinction coefficient.
• l is the path length of the light through the sample.
• c is the concentration of the absorbing species.

This law establishes a direct correlation between absorbance and concentration under specific conditions, such as using a dilute solution and monochromatic light. It is a fundamental principle used for quantitative analysis in methods like UV-Vis spectroscopy and infrared spectroscopy. In a linear calibration plot where the path length is 1 cm, absorbance...

Ambient: simulate global lighting,  constant in all surfaces. Objects not lighted by extrnl source of light. Lghts parts that cannot be reached by source of light, but seen by  observer I = Ia*Ka

Diffuse: after a source of light incides in a surface, the reflected rays are dispersed in many directions (common: rough surfaces).A surface is an ideal diffuse reflector (Lambert reflector) if it reflects light in all directions with the = intensity → surface equally shiny from any perspective. I =Ip*Kp*(N*L)

Specular: effect of "bright spots" that see in a surface reflecting light, can only be observed from certain directions (common glossy surfaces) ▪ direction of specular reflection  determined by the angle of reflection (𝜙) with respect...

1) A wave has the form

When x = 0, the wavelength is

By applying continuity conditions at x = 0, find the amplitude A_x>0 (in terms of A) and phase Φ of the wave in the region x > 0. Use any variable or symbol stated above as necessary.

2) An electron is trapped in an infinite well of width L = 1.87nm. What are the three longest wavelengths permitted for the electron's de Broglie waves?

The wave function must be zero everywhere the potential is infinite. So the wave function is zero outside the well. Since the wave function must be continuous, the wave function inside the well must go to zero at the edges of the well. Thus, only certain discrete wavelengths are allowed.

3) A particle is described by the wave function ψ(x) = b(a² - x²) for

The Genesis of New Criticism

English Foundations: I.A. Richards' Influence

The roots of New Criticism were initially in England, specifically at the University of Cambridge, championed by I.A. Richards. A lecturer, Richards linked New Criticism to the USA by moving to Harvard in 1939. He found in America a very suitable ground to develop his theory of criticism, as Americans sought new methods for literary study without relying on external context. Richards' seminal work, Practical Criticism, explains his method in detail.

René Wellek and Cosmopolitanism

René Wellek contributed significantly to the cosmopolitan component of New Criticism, ensuring it was not an exclusively Anglo-American method of criticism.

American Roots: The Southern Literary

The Rise of New Criticism

The New Critical method was rapidly adopted, particularly in the North, due to its inexpensive and easily transferable characteristics. Prominent scholars in the North included Austin Warren, W.K. Wimsatt, and Cleanth Brooks. Brooks, in particular, emerged as the most influential New Critic.

Transforming Literary Study

Traditionally, English literature was taught as the History of English Literature, an extrinsic method. New Critics sought to transform these departments into centers of Literary Criticism. They achieved this through three key methods that fundamentally changed the organization of the teaching profession:

• Staffing University Departments

  Gradually, New Critics began to occupy chairs of literature previously

Features of English Practical Criticism

The origins were a desire to rescue literary studies from historicism and contextualism, and proponents wanted to turn literary study into a scientific method — to give seriousness and a true methodology to the analysis of literature. Richards thought that the only way to do that was to restrict the study to the text alone.

Richards gave his students sheets of paper on which literary fragments had been printed: short poems or fragments of longer works. He did not print the name of the author, the title, or the date, in order to decontextualize the text for study. He told the students to work with the text with no additional information. From these studies, he wrote Practical Criticism in 1929, from which...