Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Physics for Other courses

A Personal Update

Dear Uncle Joaquin,

Thank you very much for sending me the FIFA 20 for my birthday. It’s amazing; you remembered it's my favorite game!

I had an extraordinary day. My family has been congratulating me all day. Then I went with my cousins to play football. In the evening, I opened my parents' present – it was a ball from the Champions League! And in the afternoon, I went to the shopping center to buy a lot of clothes.

I’m looking forward to seeing you at the weekend.

Love,

Carlos

Football Team Analysis

In my review, I compared three prominent football teams: Real Madrid, Liverpool, and Bayern Munich. All three play very well in both attacking and defending.

Real Madrid: Young Talent and Dominance

Real Madrid is a dominant team...

Frames of Reference

Inertial frame of reference – A frame at rest or moving with constant velocity where Newton’s First Law of Motion holds true and no extra forces are needed.

Non-inertial frame of reference – A frame that is accelerating or rotating where Newton’s laws need fictitious (pseudo) forces to explain motion.

Radiation Laws and Hypotheses

Wien’s displacement law – It states that the wavelength at which a body emits maximum radiation is inversely proportional to its temperature. λmax ∝ 1/T and λmaxT = Constant.

Stefan’s law – It states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body per unit time is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

de Broglie hypothesis –...

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1. Ohm’s Law (V–I Relationship)

Aim

To verify Ohm’s Law and determine the resistance of a metallic conductor.

Apparatus

Battery, ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat, key, and resistance wire.

Theory

Ohm’s Law states that at a constant temperature, the current is directly proportional to the potential difference: V = IR.

Procedure

• Connect the circuit (ammeter in series, voltmeter in parallel).
• Adjust the current using the rheostat.
• Record the V and I readings.
• Plot a graph of V versus I.

Observation

A straight-line graph passing through the origin.

Result

Ohm’s Law is verified. Resistance R = V/I (slope of the graph).

2. Parallel Combination of Resistances

Aim

To verify the law of parallel combination using a meter bridge.

Theory

1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2

Result

The...

Concept of Slope and Gradient

The closeness of curves indicates a steep slope, while a large separation indicates a slight incline. This equidistance, whenever we have to compare the two cases, is the same. The equidistance of curves in a plane is unique.

• A series of concentric curves, where the heights rise to the center, indicates a rise or hill.
• A series of concentric curves, in which the dimensions decrease toward the center, indicates a depression or hollow.

We define slope as the ratio between the horizontal and vertical displacement, always looking from the top down. The gradient is defined as the ratio between the vertical and horizontal displacement.

Alignment

• Natural Distance (Dn): Dn is the distance traveled on the ground, following the

Calculating Laser Beam Size

It is simple to calculate the size of a laser beam. For example, if the divergence is 2 mils, after the beam has traveled 10 meters, its radius is 20 mm and its diameter is 40 mm.

Laser Coherence and Wave Properties

Electromagnetic radiation is an oscillatory phenomenon. The electric and magnetic fields oscillate in a sine wave over time. However, these oscillations do not remain constant for long and are not always the same at all points in the space occupied by the light. The degree of relationship between these oscillations at different times and in different positions defines the coherence of radiation.

The coherence of the radiation determines the visibility of interference phenomena (the constructive superposition...

Physics of Sound and Waves

Discover the fundamental principles of acoustics and wave mechanics, from the characteristics of sound to complex wave behaviors.

Understanding Sound and Its Properties

• Sound: A longitudinal mechanical vibration of low amplitude of the points of an elastic material that spreads to the surrounding medium, reaching our ears and disrupting their balance, causing the sensation of noise.
• Echo: A repetition of sound caused by reflection, i.e., when the incident wave and the reflected wave impress the hearing of the same observer with a time difference sufficient to be perceived as different sounds.
• Reverb: When the sound and the echoes are perceived together.
• Characteristics of sound:
  • Loudness: The intensity of the wave.
  • Timbre:

Physics Concepts: Kinematics and Dynamics

ETAPA 2: Gravity and Projectile Motion

• Free Fall: The movement described by a body when it moves freely under the influence of gravity.
• Horizontal Projectile Motion: The motion a body describes when thrown from a certain height in a horizontal direction; its trajectory is the combination of a horizontal and a vertical motion.
• Aristotle: He asserted that bodies fall with a velocity proportional to their weight, and the falling time was inversely proportional to it.
• Parabolic Projectile Motion: The most common projectile motion, consisting of throwing an object in a direction that forms an angle with the horizontal at a certain velocity.
• Gravitational Acceleration: The natural magnitude all bodies possess when

Propagation of Light

Light propagates in all directions and undergoes processes such as reflection, refraction, and attenuation. Light interacts with all surfaces and can be categorized as follows:

Types of Reflection

• Specular Reflection: Occurs on polished surfaces. Mirror images are visible because all light rays are deflected equally.
• Diffuse Reflection: Occurs on most surfaces. Mirror images cannot be seen because surface irregularities cause scattered reflections.

Shadows and Penumbras

A direct effect of the rectilinear propagation of light is the formation of shadows. In these areas, a fuzzy edge called the penumbra is visible, which forms when the light source has a considerable size.

How Mirrors Work

Mirrors are constructed of flat glass coated...

Modern Physics and Special Relativity

Postulates of Special Relativity

• First Postulate: The physical laws are identical in all inertial reference systems, and equations are expressed by analogy.
• Second Postulate: The value of the speed of light in a vacuum is 3 x 10^8 m/s. It does not depend on the observer measuring it nor the movement of the light source; it is an absolute velocity.

The Photoelectric Effect

Some metals, when illuminated by electromagnetic radiation with a small wavelength, emit electrons. Light strikes the cathode, resulting in the issuance of electrons reaching the anode and establishing a current detected by the ammeter.

Experimental Results

• Kinetic Energy: Defined in terms of the intensity of the radiation.
• Intensity: At small