Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Physics for Baccalaureate

Extrasolar Planets

An extrasolar planet is a planet orbiting a star other than our Sun. There are two general ways of learning about a distant object: directly, which means by obtaining images or spectra of the object, and indirectly, which means by inferring the object’s existence or properties without actually seeing it. There are two major indirect approaches to finding and studying extrasolar planets:

1. Observing the motion of a star to detect the subtle gravitational tugs
2. Observing changes to a star’s brightness that occur when one of its planets passes in front of the star as viewed from Earth.

Planets exert gravitational tugs on their star, causing the star to orbit around the system center of mass. Gravitational tugs: we can detect a...

Uniform Rectilinear Motion (MRU)

An object performs Uniform Rectilinear Motion (MRU) if it travels equal distances in equal times and its trajectory is a straight line. The equation of motion allows us to determine the position of the body at every moment.

Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion (MRUA)

An object experiences Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion (MRUA) if its velocity changes by equal amounts in equal times, and its trajectory is a straight line.

Circular Motion (MC)

Circular Motion (MC) describes the path of an object along a circumference. For its study, the center of the circle is typically placed at the origin of the coordinate system. The following characteristics are always fulfilled:

• The magnitude of the position vector

Gravitational Acceleration and Field Strength

The strength of the gravitational field depends on the amount of mass $M$ causing the field. Let us define a characteristic of the field that depends only on the mass $M$ and the distance $r$ to the point we consider.

Defining Gravitational Field Strength ($g$)

The gravitational field strength, $g$, at a point in space is the force that would act on a unit mass located at that point. Its unit is Newtons per kilogram ($N/kg$). This term is often used interchangeably with gravitational field intensity.

Calculating the Gravitational Field

To determine the gravitational field created by a point mass $M$, we place a test mass $m$ at a point $P$ in space at a distance $r$ from mass $M$. We calculate the force...

Henry's Experiment

If a driver or wire moves perpendicular to a magnetic field, it causes a potential difference across the ends of the conductor. This potential difference causes a current if the driver is part of a closed circuit.

Faraday's Law

Any change in magnetic flux through a circuit causes an induced current. This is produced by a known electromotive force (induced EMF), which exists only for the duration of this change in flux and is proportional to the rate of change of flow.

Lenz's Law

The direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the cause that produces it.

Alternator

An alternator consists of a flat coil of N turns, rotating with constant angular velocity within a uniform magnetic field B. In the coil, an EMF is induced...

**Coulomb's Law: Quantifying Force Between Electric Charges**

The quantification of force between electric charges is attributed to Coulomb, who used a torsion balance. Coulomb's law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This can be expressed as:

F = K • (Q₁Q₂ / r²)

Where:

• F is the force
• K is Coulomb's constant
• Q₁ and Q₂ are the charges
• r is the distance between the charges

The electrical constant, K, is defined in terms of another constant called the permittivity of the medium. Coulomb's law is analogous to Newton's law of universal gravitation. Both forces are proportional to the product of the property...

Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics studies the material world by selecting a portion of the universe on which attention is focused, known as a System. The remainder of the universe is considered the environment.

Classification of Thermodynamic Systems

Thermodynamic systems are categorized based on their interaction with the environment:

• Open Systems: These systems can exchange both energy (in the form of work or heat) and matter with their surroundings.
  Example: An open glass of water.
• Closed Systems: These systems can exchange energy with the surroundings but not matter.
  Example: A sealed jar of pickles.
• Isolated Systems: These systems cannot exchange matter or energy with the environment. Consequently, the total amount of energy within

Radio Frequency Carrier and Amplitude Modulation

The **RF carrier** is shown with its amplitude varying according to the frequency and amplitude of the modulating signal. In AM radio, the audio *sidebands* have a different bandwidth than the carrier. Regulations often limit the maximum audio frequency to 15 kHz.

Handling Variable Audio Signals

Question: What to do if the audio signal is variable?

Answer: Varying the amplitude of the carrier in time with the audio signal (Amplitude Modulation).

Antennas: Definition and Function

An antenna is a device designed for the purpose of transmitting or receiving electromagnetic waves in space. A transmitting antenna transforms electromagnetic wave voltages into radiated waves, and a receiving antenna performs...

Fundamental Concepts in Fluid Mechanics

Pressure and Phase Changes

• Evaporation: The constant movement of molecules on the surface of a liquid, allowing them to escape into the atmosphere.
• Boiling: Occurs when the pressure to which a liquid is subjected equals its vapor pressure.
• Vapor Pressure: The partial pressure exerted by molecules in the gaseous state within a container when occupying a space above a liquid.
• Saturation Pressure: The state where there is a dynamic balance between the number of molecules that evaporate and condense.
• Cavitation: A phenomenon where, if the local pressure (p) in a liquid drops to or below its vapor pressure, the liquid rapidly evaporates, forming vapor bubbles. These bubbles then move and collapse violently within

Electric Field Fundamentals

5.a) Charged Particle Movement and Energy Changes

When a charged particle moves in an electric field, if the electric force (F_e) is conservative, the change in mechanical energy (ΔEM) is zero. This implies an inverse relationship between kinetic energy (Ec) and potential energy (Ep): if Ec increases, Ep decreases, and vice versa.

If a particle's speed decreases upon entering an electric field, its charge is negative. Conversely, if its speed increases, its charge is positive.

5.b) Work Done by Magnetic Fields on Charges

No work is performed by a magnetic field on a charged particle. A magnetic field generates a magnetic force that is always perpendicular to the path of the charged particle, meaning it does no work.

6.

Understanding the Resultant Vector

The result of a vector sum is known as the resultant vector (R = A + B + C). There are two primary methods to sum vectors graphically.

The Parallelogram Method

The Parallelogram Method only works for two vectors. First, you must draw both vectors from the same origin point using a proper scale. Then, using triangles, draw parallel auxiliary lines that touch the tip of each vector. By doing this, an intersection of the auxiliary lines is formed. The result of the vector sum is the resultant vector formed when the origin point and the intersection are joined together. The tip of the resultant vector is located at the intersection, and the direction is measured from the origin point.

The Tail-to-Tip Method

The Tail-