Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Second International: History and Impact

Formation and Early Years (1889)

The Second International, initially known as the International Social, was an organization formed in 1889. It brought together socialist and labor parties, primarily from European countries, to coordinate the international activities of labor movements. It existed until its dissolution in 1916, following the legacy of the First International.

The International Socialist Bureau (ISB)

A permanent body of the Second International was the International Socialist Bureau (ISB). Created by the V Congress in Paris in 1900, its headquarters were in Brussels. The ISB coordinated communication between member parties and organized congresses. Émile Vandervelde served as its chairman...

Characteristics of the Fascist State in Italy

Foreign Policy

Initially, foreign policy focused on economic progress and stability. Italy signed the Locarno Treaty, accepting the frontiers fixed by the Peace of Versailles.

Mussolini concentrated all powers, implanting the Fascist dictatorship. He refocused foreign policy towards expansion:

• Invasion of Ethiopia.
• Invasion of Albania.
• Military alliances, leading to participation in the Second World War.

Economic Policy: State Intervention and Autarky

The economy was characterized by state intervention aimed at stimulating production and heavy investment in infrastructure.

An autarkic economic policy was pursued, meaning the Italian state attempted to cater to its needs using only its own resources.

Social

Historical Timeline: 1898 to 1931

• 1898: Economic, political, and moral crisis.
• 1902: Alfonso XIII begins his reign.
• 1909: Defeat at the Barranco del Lobo and the Tragic Week revolt in Barcelona.
• 1914–1917: World War I period.
• 1917: Russia withdraws; the U.S. joins the war. The 1917 crisis includes:
  • Military: Juntas and the Manifesto of the Boards.
  • Political: Regionalist League and the Catalan parliament meeting.
  • Social: Widespread unrest.
• 1920s: Period between the crisis and the Primo de Rivera government. Characterized by clashes between workers and bourgeois entrepreneurs, the rise of parliamentary systems, Marxism-Leninism, fascism, and strong nationalist movements.
• 1921: Battle of Annual (Morocco).
• 1921–1930: The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship.
• 1923:

Historical Periods of the Twentieth Century

Throughout the twentieth century, the Western world experienced a profound transformation. Events that mark our history include the two World Wars, the Russian Revolution, and the Cold War. Around these events, the following periods are established:

• From the beginning of the century until World War I (1900–1914). Labor movements developed during this time.
• The First World War (1914–1918), provoked by colonial rivalries. In Russia, the communist revolution occurred.
• The interwar period (1920–1939). This era saw the start of the economic euphoria of the Roaring Twenties, followed by the Crash of '29.
• The Second World War. This period includes the German invasion of Poland and the bombings of Hiroshima

The First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)

The First Republic occurred after the abdication of Amadeo I. The Congress and the Senate united in the National Assembly in 1873 and proclaimed the First Republic. However, it began with problems: some favored centralism, others federalism, and others conservative reform. Additionally, the Republic was opposed by monarchists, and the war in Cuba continued.

There were four presidents:

• Figueras: Took popular measures, prohibited child labor, and abolished slavery in 1873. He convened elections, which the Federalists won, and appointed Pi i Margall as president.
• Pi i Margall: A very progressive constitution project was produced. Radicals caused an uprising called the Cantonal Revolution, supported by Federalists

The Duma and Failed Reforms (1905-1917)

The October Manifesto initiated a program of political liberalization, granting some minimal political freedoms. The Dumas were legislative bodies elected by restricted suffrage. However, these reforms ultimately failed for two main reasons: the Tsar's absolute authority and the Duma's lack of accountability. The Tsar retained the power to dissolve the Duma, and it was not responsible to the elected assembly.

Opposition Movements and Ideological Splits

Divergences increased between the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks regarding revolutionary strategy:

• Mensheviks: They viewed the proletariat's perceived weakness as a sign to abandon immediate revolutionary plans. Instead, they advocated for a bourgeois-democratic

The government offered no resistance and formed a dimitio cabinet. Canovas communicated to the regency his proclamation as rey (king) for Alfonso. To restore the authority of the crown, Canovas appointed new monarchical governors and mayors and enacted a series of repressive measures against the opposition. He also re-established the concordat in its entirety and ensured the economic contributions of the state to the church. Canovas kept in touch with progressive and democratic leaders, wanting them to accept the monarchy.

The final campaign against the Carlists allowed their surrender in March 1876 (Somorrostro manifesto). Carlism had been defeated, but the problems associated with it remained unresolved. The end of the Carlist War allowed...

World War I: Origins and Development

Pre-war Crises

• First Morocco Crisis (1905-1906)

  Conflict between Germany and France. France emerged victorious and, with partner organizations, ceded parts of Morocco to Spain.

• Second Morocco Crisis (1911-1912)

  Germany accused France of violating a treaty regarding the French Congo. Spain and France strengthened their protectorate over Morocco.

Balkan Crises

These crises further heightened tensions:

• First Balkan Crisis (1908-1909)

  Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia from the Ottomans.

• Second Balkan Crisis (1912-1913)

  Strengthened Serbia against the Ottomans. Later, Serbia clashed with Bulgaria over newly independent territories.

Causes of World War I

• Political Causes

  • Pressure of Nationalism (desire for an external conflict

Historical Context of Descartes

The historical context of René Descartes spans the 15th to the 17th centuries, marking the consolidation of the modern world. This era saw the completion of significant transitions by the late 17th century.

Socio-Economic and Political Shifts

• 16th-Century Crisis: An imbalance that extended into the 17th century.
• Socio-Economic Situation: Development of the bourgeoisie, mercantile capitalism, maritime technical innovations, and general economic growth.
• Hardships: Crises caused by pestilence, crop failures, and famine.
• Political Landscape: The rise of the absolute monarchy from the 16th century, exemplified by Louis XIV in France and Philip IV in Spain.
• Political Theory: Thomas Hobbes defended absolutism, while John

Spain's Foreign Policy: 18th Century and America

Foreign Policy: America

In principle, Felipe V was guided by the recovery of territory lost in the Treaty of Utrecht. First, he focused on regaining Italian territories.

From 1728 until the king's death in 1746, there was a rapprochement with France, reflected in the "Treaty of Families" with the French Bourbons. This led to Philip V's sons gaining Italian thrones. Charles III became king of Naples and Sicily, and his brother Philip succeeded to the dukedom of Parma-Piacenza.

The first two family pacts, aimed at offsetting the power of Great Britain, did not yield significant results. In 1761, Spain signed the Third Family Compact, joining France in numerous wars against Britain. Additionally, Spain,...