Understanding Russia's 1917 Revolutions

The Duma and Failed Reforms (1905-1917)

The October Manifesto initiated a program of political liberalization, granting some minimal political freedoms. The Dumas were legislative bodies elected by restricted suffrage. However, these reforms ultimately failed for two main reasons: the Tsar's absolute authority and the Duma's lack of accountability. The Tsar retained the power to dissolve the Duma, and it was not responsible to the elected assembly.

Opposition Movements and Ideological Splits

Divergences increased between the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks regarding revolutionary strategy:

• Mensheviks: They viewed the proletariat's perceived weakness as a sign to abandon immediate revolutionary plans. Instead, they advocated for a bourgeois-democratic phase to pave the way for future socialist revolution.
• Bolsheviks: Led by Vladimir Lenin, they believed the proletariat's sole reliable ally should be the peasantry, not the bourgeoisie, for achieving a socialist revolution.

The February 1917 Revolution: Spontaneous Uprising

The spontaneous revolt began in Petrograd with workers, quickly supported by women and soldiers protesting rationing and the high cost of living. Their demands were for "Peace and Bread" and "Down with the Autocracy." This movement was initially localized. Instead of suppressing the uprising, soldiers fraternized with the population and workers, leading to the formation of Soviets (councils of workers' and soldiers' deputies).

The Provisional Government and Lenin's April Theses

Following the triumph of the revolution and the abolition of Tsarist rule, a Provisional Government was formed, largely led by Mensheviks like Alexander Kerensky. This government took a series of measures:

• Called for free elections by year-end to choose a Constituent National Assembly.
• Granted amnesty for political prisoners.
• Recognized basic rights and freedoms.
• Dissolved the Tsarist police.
• Abolished aristocratic privileges.

However, a critical decision was to continue the war. Despite these reforms, the majority of the population demanded more profound changes:

• Soldiers: Wanted an immediate end to the war.
• Workers: Sought an 8-hour workday and control over factories.
• Peasants: Called for land redistribution.

In response to this situation, Lenin, the Bolshevik leader, returned from exile and published his famous April Theses. Key points included:

• Immediate peace with the Central Powers (end of the war).
• Nationalization of all land.
• Formation of a government of workers and peasants (Soviet power).
• Decreed worker control over enterprises and industries.
• Equality for all peoples of Russia.

Consolidation of Bolshevik Power and Repression

The objectives of the new international (Comintern) were to support the Soviet regime, which was threatened by civil war and foreign intervention, and to coordinate world revolution. The Red Army, as the military organization of the regime, began to implement a strong policy of repression against all dissidents, especially Mensheviks and anarchists, who were arrested and tried by military tribunals.