Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Causes of World War I

Political & Territorial Causes

France and Germany endured the dispute over Alsace-Lorraine, fueled by French nationalist revindications against Germanization attempts. Additionally, Poland, divided between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, saw Polish nationalists demanding independence. The conflicting interests of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires also played a significant role. Furthermore, the demarcation of borders for Albania and Greece raised the question of strait control. Finally, colonial rivalries, driven by Germany's desire for a new division of the world, clashed with the British Empire.

Economic Factors

International capital movements led to confrontations between countries, influencing political decisions....

Alfonso XIII and the Failed Restoration

The Restoration, under Alfonso XIII, attempted to resolve Spain's deep-seated problems through a revolution from above. This project ultimately failed because sector representatives refused to relinquish privilege, and necessary political reforms were resisted.

The Core Spanish Problem

The nation faced significant challenges:

• Economic and cultural backwardness.
• A corrupt political regime.
• National pride wounded by military defeat (the loss of Cuba).
• Peripheral nationalisms threatening national disintegration.

Impact of the Disaster (1898–1902)

The loss of colonies was primarily a social catastrophe rather than an economic one. Nevertheless, the events of 1898 initiated a gradual power crisis for the state. Furthermore,...

The UN Resolution on Post-War Spain

This text examines the resolution adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, an organization created after World War II to maintain world peace and uphold human rights. Following the war, the new world order established by liberal democracies and the USSR viewed Spain with hostility due to its clear alignment with the Axis powers.

The UN Position on the Franco Regime

The purpose of this document is to clarify the UN's stance toward Spain. The international body rejected the Franco government, demanding the restoration of freedoms suppressed by the dictatorship. A defining feature of the regime was National Syndicalism, which drew clear inspiration from fascism.

Fascist Influence and Wartime Neutrality

During...

The Spanish Constitution of 1931

The first step of the new government, headed by Manuel Azaña, was the drafting of a constitution, leading to 1931, whose principles were:

• It defined Spain as a "democratic republic of workers of all kinds," organized in a system of "freedom and justice."
• Proclaimed equality before the law and gave a comprehensive statement of rights.
• The state was unique but admitted possible regional autonomy.
• Recognized private property, although it admitted the possibility of compensation prior to expropriation, provided that the national interest demanded it.
• The courts acquired great power, both legislative and control over the government, and consisted of a single chamber elected by universal suffrage, also including women.

The Right-Wing Biennium (1933-1936)

During this period, the Republic faced a dual opposition from both monarchists and anarchists.

Opposition from New Monarchist Groups

In 1932, the CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups) was formed by José María Gil Robles's Acción Popular. It became the country's main right-wing party with objectives to:

• Revise the Constitution
• Curb social reformism
• Defend Catholicism

Other right-wing parties included the Comunión Tradicionalista and Renovación Española. Smaller fascist-leaning groups, such as the Falange Española de las JONS, also emerged. In 1933, the UME (Spanish Military Union) was created. All these groups conspired against the Republic.

Anarchist Opposition

The slow pace of the Agrarian...

Historical Context: The Reign of Amadeo I

Type: Political primary source (contemporary with the events described).

Author: Amadeo of Savoy. His monarchy began following the expulsion of Isabel II during the Glorious Revolution of 1868, which left Spain as a monarchy without a king. After significant difficulty in finding a successor, the throne was offered to Amadeo of Savoy, son of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy—a popular monarch known for leading the unification of Italy and establishing political liberalism. However, Amadeo faced a divided, economically backward country where the political class refused to accept him, making his planned reforms virtually impossible to implement.

Historical Period: The Sexenio Democrático (1868-1874)

Background:

The following text is a minute from the decree written by Juan Alvarez Mendizabal, the head of government (a Spanish economist and politician, liberal progressive), addressed to the regent Maria Cristina during the minority of her daughter. It explains the desamortizador process.

Objectives of the Confiscation

The main theme of this decree is to explain the objectives of the confiscation. The primary goal of selling state-owned assets was to fulfill a promise and reduce the national debt. Secondary objectives included:

• Economic development
• Facilitating property ownership
• Boosting commerce and industry

Significance of the Confiscation

The confiscation of church lands was a key element of the liberal revolution and had significant economic and social...

The Reign of Alfonso XIII: A Nation in Crisis

The Crisis of the Spanish Food System (1923) and the Rise of Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship (1923)

The year 1923 marked a turning point in Spain's history, characterized by a crisis in the food system and the subsequent establishment of Primo de Rivera's dictatorship. These events were preceded by the Regenerationism movement, a surge of intellectual thought denouncing the dire state of the nation. Between 1902 and 1923, Spain experienced a period of political instability, with King Alfonso XIII entangled in governmental changes and aligning himself with conservative factions within the army.

Key Problems in Spanish Political Life

• Escalation of social unrest due to increased mobilization of the working

Revolutionary Measures of the Bolshevik Government

The Formation of the Council of People's Commissars: Led by Lenin, this became the first government of workers and peasants. It promptly undertook the establishment of socialism through several revolutionary decrees:

• Decree on Peace: Peace was signed with Germany. Russia accepted the conditions proposed, ceding parts of Poland, the Baltic countries, Finland, and territory to Romania.
• Decree on Land: Land was expropriated from owners and distributed to farmers, with debts forgiven. However, by 1918, due to hunger and poor food distribution, the state collectivized the land and became its owner.
• Abolition of Titles: All aristocratic titles were removed.
• Self-Determination: Recognition of the rights

The Crisis of the Elizabethan Monarchy (1863–1868)

In 1863, the erosion of government action and divisions within the Liberal Union led O'Donnell to resign. This began a succession of unstable and authoritarian governments, alternately headed by O'Donnell and Narváez.

Political Instability and the Rise of Opposition (1863–1865)

The Progressives withdrew from parliamentary life due to the obvious impossibility of being called to govern. Led by General Prim, they joined Democrats and Republicans to denounce the constitutional system and Queen Isabel II herself. Slowly, the majority of public opinion began to blame the Crown for the political disaster.

The long crisis of the Elizabethan monarchy was caused by a confluence of factors, including...