Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Vietnam War: Origins and Conflict

Vietnam War: Following the end of the Indochina War of independence in 1954, the territorial division of Vietnam into two states was ratified.

The Communist leader Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam announced the decision to send troops to conquer South Vietnam. In 1960, the Communists in South Vietnam formed the National Liberation Front, also known as the Vietcong, and supported the offensive in the north to achieve reunification. The Vietnam conflict became a new scenario of the Cold War.

This was the origin of a long war that lasted 20 years. The Americans, along with the governments of South Vietnam, provided troops and armament. Because of the wear faced by a population, the guerrillas in the United States had difficulty...

The Interwar Period (1919-1939)

Economic recovery was short-lived, beginning with the 1920 crisis, which was not overcome until 1924. This period commenced with a new global balance.

Accelerated demand led to overproduction, which in turn caused a crisis. Another significant problem was the imbalance in the monetary system. During the war, all countries suspended the convertibility of their currencies, sparking inflation. This situation led to devaluations. To resolve this instability, a conference was convened in Genoa.

From 1924, an economic expansion began, lasting until 1929, which culminated in the Crash of 1929.

Economic Imbalances Leading to the 1929 Crisis:

• Maintenance of high unemployment rates
• Uneven growth of productive sectors
• Excess supply

Key Figures in Spanish History

Calvo Sotelo

A Galician politician, he was born a deputy governor and served in civil courts. During the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, he occupied official positions.

Manuel Azaña

A political writer, he studied law and was a senior official in the Ministry of Justice. Devoted to politics, in the Second Republic he was appointed Minister of War. He was then elected President of the Government, carrying out a comprehensive reform policy. After the 1936 elections, he became President again but was later removed.

Francisco Largo Caballero

A politician, he joined the UGT at a very young age. He held various positions and collaborated with the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera. Upon the arrival of the Second Republic, he...

Military Directory: Establishing Order

The military directory was established as a direct measure by the military dictatorship to act as an advisory body. Its primary initiatives to achieve "social peace" and restore "order" included:

• Replacing civilian governors with military rulers.
• Restricting press freedom.
• Banning workers' demonstrations.
• Forcing intellectuals into exile.
• Centralizing political and territorial administration based on nationalism.
• Ending the Morocco conflict following the Al Hoceima landing.
• Reforming provincial and municipal administration.
• Attempting to organize politics around a single party, the Patriotic Union, based on the ideals of "Patria, Religion, and Monarchy."

Despite having many affiliates, the regime could not resist...

The Progressive Biennium (1931-1933)

The period known as the Progressive Biennium (1931-1933) marked a significant phase in the history of the Second Spanish Republic, characterized by ambitious social and economic reforms.

Economic Challenges and Stagnation

Spain was not severely affected by the Great Depression of 1929 due to its relatively closed economy; data from these years actually indicated an impasse. However, a stagnant economy proved insufficient to fund the ambitious reforms planned by the government.

Two factors significantly impacted the economic landscape:

• Global Economic Crises: Many foreign governments initiated protectionist measures, hindering international trade.
• Rising Unemployment: A clear and growing increase in unemployment

The War of Movement Begins

Western Front

The Schlieffen Plan involved a German attack on France through neutral Belgium. Moltke directed German troops. The French army, under the command of Joffre, restrained the German advance in the Battle of the Marne. Stabilizing fronts marked the start of trench warfare.

Eastern Front

After initial Russian advances, the Germans imposed their will, though not definitively, in the Battle of Tannenberg. There were advances against Austria-Hungary. Austro-Hungarian troops failed in their attack on Serbia.

1915–1916: The War of Position

Western Front Stabilization

Fronts stabilized. Successive attempts to break the line resulted in bloody carnage, yielding advances of just a few kilometers. This was the height of...

The Russian Revolution of 1917

The Road to Revolution

In February 1917, Russia was struggling in the First World War alongside France and Britain. Facing powerful enemies like Germany and Austria-Hungary, the nation faced mounting unrest. As the war continued, the prestige of the Tsar plummeted. Production and transport of weapons and food failed to reach the front, while factories suffered from a lack of raw materials and fuel. Consequently, the population faced hunger and cold, and the Tsar was held responsible for the tragedy.

Rising Discontent and the February Revolution

The Bolsheviks opposed Russia's entry into the war, and their influence grew as discontent multiplied in the army and cities due to supply shortages. In February 1917, demonstrations...

Causes of World War I

The outbreak of World War I stemmed from several complex factors:

• Intense Rivalries Among European Powers: Many rivalries existed among European powers. French territorial claims over Alsace and Lorraine created very tense relations between France and Germany.
• Economic Competition: Economic rivalries also played a significant role. The United Kingdom and Germany, possessing great purchasing power, often engaged in an economic battle for new markets. Germany's desire for expansion was seen by the UK as a threat to its colonial empire.
• Naval Arms Race: A crucial point of distrust for the United Kingdom was the German naval buildup. The UK sought an alliance with France to counter this threat.
• Formation of Alliances:
  • The Triple

The Path to Restoration

In January 1874, a military dictatorship under General Serrano was in place, alongside growing support for the Alfonsine cause. In December of that year, Prince Alfonso, then 17 years old, signed the Sandhurst Manifesto. Following this, monarchist generals Jovellar, Martínez Campos, and Antonio Cánovas del Castillo declared themselves in Sagunto on December 29th in favor of the monarchy. Cánovas subsequently appointed new governors and mayors, introduced censorship, and decreed the closure of Republican newspapers.

Key Events and End of Conflicts

Within two years of the Restoration's beginning, two significant wars initiated in the previous period concluded. In March 1876, the Carlists surrendered, an event marked by...

Analyzing Primo de Rivera's 1923 Manifesto

Text Classification and Primary Source

We are faced with a text of a political nature and it is a primary source. Specifically, it is a manifesto, published the day after the coup d'état in Madrid on September 13, 1923.

The manifesto was authored by Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia in 1923, who was notable in previous years for his collaboration in the repression of labor activism that devastated Barcelona since 1917.

Justification and Aims of the Coup

In this text, the author sets out his plans, focused heavily on political issues, justifying the coup. After exposing his intentions to whom it may concern, he announces his goal to solve the deep-seated problems of Spanish society, which...