Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Charles V's Empire: Comuneros and Germanies

In 1516, Charles arrived in Spain without knowing either the language or the political reality of the Iberian Peninsula. His appointment of Flemings to administrative positions caused ill will among the Castilian nobility. Another problem arose from his desire to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. He convened the Cortes in Compostela, requesting funds for his imperial coronation, which sparked the Revolt of the Comuneros in Castile. This movement originated among the urban commoner nobility in Toledo, Segovia, and Salamanca, later joined by Madrid, Ávila, Guadalajara, and Zamora. The political demands of the Comuneros were articulated in the so-called Supreme Junta of Ávila, where they called for the...

The Liberal Regime of Elizabeth II (1833-1868)

During the reign of Elizabeth II (1833-1868), the main objective was to settle the liberal state in Spain. This process was divided into two primary stages:

The Minority of Elizabeth II (1833-1843)

This first stage focused on the gradual and complete dismantling of the Old Regime. Between 1833 and 1835, Spain saw a transition between the absolutist state of Ferdinand VII and the liberal state of Isabella II. The protagonists were monarchical reformists and moderate liberals, including Martínez de la Rosa, who supported combining the old state with liberal principles.

The Royal Statute and Early Reforms

The legal text acting as a narrow bridge between liberalism and absolutism was the Royal Statute

The Origins of Basque Nationalism

Basque nationalism emerged in the late nineteenth century with the Bizkaitarra. Initially tied exclusively to Bizkaia, the movement later expanded its claims to include all provinces with a Basque population. The core elements of Basque nationality were rooted in race, language, law, nature, and customs.

Sabino Arana and the EAJ-PNV

The primary driver of this movement was Sabino Arana, founder of the EAJ-PNV. Arana advocated for a complete break from Spain and the proclamation of independence to protect Basque society from modern influences such as secularism, immigration, and industrialization.

The Fuerista Perspective

From a traditional fuerista perspective, Arana sought to collect and bring coherence to ideas...

The Crisis of the System in Spain

The development of the Second Industrial Revolution in Spain, the strengthening of class consciousness among the masses, and the distance between the interests of the nation and the ruling oligarchy led to several crises that signaled the infeasibility of the existing system:

• Regeneration or Fin de Siècle Thought

  Almirall and Costa sought to criticize the oligarchic system, defining the cacique and proposing a model of development based on democratic and institutional regeneration. This included promoting education and public works. The aim was to bridge the economic, social, and political backwardness of Spain compared to Europe, creating a modern society. There were attempts at systemic regeneration, but the

Causes of the French Revolution

The French Revolution was triggered by several factors:

• Economic Issues: High economic benefits were not reaching the common people. Rules interfered with free trade and production. The inability to attain political power and the influence of Enlightenment ideas also played a role.
• Severe Economic Crisis: Poor harvests led to rising agricultural prices and widespread hunger, causing discomfort among the population. Royal finances were in bankruptcy.
• Estates-General Crisis: The nobility refused to pay taxes, leading to a political crisis. The voting system within the Estates-General, where each estate had one vote, was perceived as unfair by the Third Estate.

Key Events of the Revolution

Formation of the National Assembly

The...

The Spanish Crisis of 1808

The Treaty of Fontainebleau, signed by Spain and Napoleon regarding Portugal, was actually a pretext for French forces to enter and occupy the Iberian Peninsula. The true plan was discovered when French troops began to occupy various Spanish cities.

The Riot of Aranjuez was a popular uprising that violently occupied the royal mansion, leading to the dismissal of Manuel Godoy. Charles IV and Ferdinand VII appeared weak in Napoleon's eyes, so he convinced them to go to Bayonne, where he imprisoned them and proclaimed his brother, Joseph I, as King. Joseph I, supported by the Afrancesados (illustrated supporters of the French regime), began implementing enlightened and liberal ideas.

The Start of the War of Independence

Foundational Concepts of Modern History

Luddism: Machine Destruction and Labor Resistance

Luddism refers to the destruction of machinery and industrial plants by workers who viewed these machines as enemies responsible for taking away jobs. The movement is named after Ned Ludd, the man credited with initiating this form of protest.

The Evolution of Savings and Credit Institutions

Early forms of credit institutions arose in the fifteenth century, initiated by the Franciscans, who granted interest-free loans to meet basic needs. By the nineteenth century, the goal shifted toward channeling people's savings into investment and social projects.

Chartism: The Six Points of the People's Charter

Chartism was a working-class movement in Britain that advocated...

The Mendizábal Confiscations

Joseph I and the Cádiz Parliament enacted new confiscations, which, like those of the Liberal Triennium (1820–1823), did not prevent the return to absolutism. It was after the death of Ferdinand VII that the bourgeois liberal revolution took hold.

The 1836 Confiscation Process

In 1836, amid the civil war against the Carlists, Mendizábal launched the confiscation of all regular church property. As a first step in 1835, he dissolved religious orders—except those devoted to teaching or caring for the sick—and declared their land, buildings, libraries, and works of art to be state property. These assets were subsequently sold by public auction.

Objectives of the Expropriation

The primary objectives sought were:

• Restructuring

The Revolutions

The Revolution of 1905

The social and political turmoil increased as a result of poor living conditions and the rise of corruption in court (Rasputin). This was aggravated by the military defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. The 1905 Revolution broke out, strong in St. Petersburg with a demonstration to the Winter Palace, which was suppressed by the army resulting in the so-called Bloody Sunday and the mutiny aboard the battleship Potemkin. After the Revolution, timid economic and political reforms were undertaken, and the Duma was convened, proposing a land reform.

The February Revolution of 1917

The movement began with a demonstration in Petrograd which culminated on the 27th of February with a general strike followed by...

The American Revolution: Birth of a Nation

The creation of the United States broke radically with monarchical traditions. It began with the rebellion of the 13 colonies against taxes imposed by Great Britain. GB sent troops, initiating a war between the colonies and the metropolis (1775). In 1776, the colonies adopted the Declaration of Independence. The war, with support from France and Spain, ended in 1783 with American independence.

The new nation, called the United States of America, had several novelties:

• The Declaration of Rights, adopted by the State of Virginia, affirmed natural rights inherent in every person.
• It established a fundamental law, or Constitution (1787), mandating that all political positions be elected periodically.
• The political