Spain's Political Turmoil: 1808 War and Ferdinand VII's Reign
The Spanish Crisis of 1808
The Treaty of Fontainebleau, signed by Spain and Napoleon regarding Portugal, was actually a pretext for French forces to enter and occupy the Iberian Peninsula. The true plan was discovered when French troops began to occupy various Spanish cities.
The Riot of Aranjuez was a popular uprising that violently occupied the royal mansion, leading to the dismissal of Manuel Godoy. Charles IV and Ferdinand VII appeared weak in Napoleon's eyes, so he convinced them to go to Bayonne, where he imprisoned them and proclaimed his brother, Joseph I, as King. Joseph I, supported by the Afrancesados (illustrated supporters of the French regime), began implementing enlightened and liberal ideas.
The Start of the War of Independence (1808)
On May 2, 1808, a major uprising occurred in Madrid when French troops attempted to transport the last remaining member of the royal family to France. This event sparked nationwide resistance.
Local defensive Juntas were created throughout Spain to organize a military uprising against the French, primarily using guerrilla warfare, thus launching the War of Independence. A Supreme Central Junta was established above the local Juntas, tasked with organizing the war effort and drafting a constitution. This conflict divided Spain into two main camps:
- The Pro-French (*Afrancesados*)
- The Patriots (comprising both Liberals and Absolutists)
Key Phases of the Conflict
- First Phase (1808): Favorable to the Spanish. Under General Castaños, and driven by strong popular reaction, the Spanish forced King Joseph I to flee Madrid.
- Second Phase (1808–1812): Favorable to the French. Massive reinforcements (approximately 250,000 troops) arrived, commanded by Napoleon himself, leading to French dominance.
- Third Phase (1812–1814): Favorable to the Spanish and British. Allied reinforcements arrived under the command of General Wellington, who defeated and expelled the French from Spain, ending the war through the Treaty of Valençay.
The Cortes of Cádiz and the 1812 Constitution
In 1810, the General Cortes were convened in Cádiz. Following liberal principles, the Cortes began drafting a constitution. This document was completed on March 19, 1812 (known as La Pepa), guaranteeing fundamental rights and repealing the privileges of the Old Regime.
Ferdinand VII: The Struggle Between Absolutism and Liberalism
Absolutist Restoration (1814–1820)
On May 4, 1814, upon his return, King Ferdinand VII repealed the 1812 Constitution. This marked the beginning of the persecution of Liberals, characterized by repression, intolerance, and exile. The return to absolutism led to the loss of Spain's prestige and resulted in financial ruin.
The Liberal Triennium (1820–1823)
General Rafael del Riego led a successful military uprising. Thanks to his troops, who were preparing to embark for America, he managed to force Ferdinand VII to swear allegiance to the 1812 Constitution, establishing the first period of constitutional government.
However, absolutists conspired to bring down the regime. This effort culminated in 1823 with the intervention of the Holy Alliance, which sent the French army, known as the "One Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis," to restore Ferdinand VII's absolute power.
The Ominous Decade (1823–1833)
The second absolutist restoration was characterized by the severe suppression of all political freedom. The Church became a key ally of Ferdinand VII, justifying his rule.
Despite the political repression, several administrative changes were implemented: the government reformed the cabinet and reorganized public finances, which allowed the Spanish economy to begin stabilizing.