Defining 19th Century Political and Economic Movements
Foundational Concepts of Modern History
Luddism: Machine Destruction and Labor Resistance
Luddism refers to the destruction of machinery and industrial plants by workers who viewed these machines as enemies responsible for taking away jobs. The movement is named after Ned Ludd, the man credited with initiating this form of protest.
The Evolution of Savings and Credit Institutions
Early forms of credit institutions arose in the fifteenth century, initiated by the Franciscans, who granted interest-free loans to meet basic needs. By the nineteenth century, the goal shifted toward channeling people's savings into investment and social projects.
Chartism: The Six Points of the People's Charter
Chartism was a working-class movement in Britain that advocated for political reform based on the following six demands:
- Equal electoral districts.
- Universal male suffrage.
- Annual renewal of Parliament.
- Abolition of property qualifications for Members of Parliament (MPs).
- Payment of allowances (salaries) to Members of Parliament.
- The secret ballot vote.
Marxist Revisionism: Edward Bernstein's Critique
This refers to the critical review or revision of Marxist ideas proposed by Eduard Bernstein, which ultimately departed significantly from orthodox Marxism. His criticisms were primarily economic. Bernstein argued that capitalist production was adapting and expanding across all sectors. He suggested that the only way to achieve a socialist society was through gradual reform and "world association," rather than immediate revolution.
Historical Materialism and Class Struggle (Marx)
Historical Materialism, as defined by Karl Marx, views history as the history of class struggle, which inevitably leads to radical social changes. Marx theorized that the wealth-creating capacity of bourgeois society would eventually transform into the basis of its own crisis and disappearance. The proletariat was destined to liquidate the bourgeoisie to achieve freedom. Therefore, the primary goal of the Communist Party was to gain political power.
Types of Colonies: The Protectorate
A Protectorate is a type of colony where some political power or native administration still exists. However, the colonial power maintains military and economic control over the territory, often under the guise of 'helping' its advancement. Examples include Morocco and Egypt during certain periods of imperialism.
The Opium Wars (1839–1842)
The Opium War was a clash between the British and the Chinese, triggered by the British insistence that the Chinese purchase opium, a product the British obtained from India.
US Foreign Policy and Expansion
The Monroe Doctrine (1823)
The Monroe Doctrine stated that there would be no European intervention in the Americas, but also, conversely, no American intervention in Europe. Its famous slogan was: "America for the Americans."
Motivations for US Expansion in the Late 19th Century
The late nineteenth century saw enormous economic growth in Europe, which was often accompanied by protectionist policies. Consequently, the United States sought privileged economic and political relations within the Americas. This drive was also influenced by Social Darwinism—the belief that the US had to compete fiercely with other nations to survive. The Americas, along with the Pacific, were considered the natural areas for US expansion.
Key US Territorial Acquisitions and Interventions
Significant US expansion occurred after the Civil War:
- The purchase of Alaska from Russia (1867).
- The Spanish-American War of 1898, resulting in the US gaining control over territories and establishing a naval base in Cuba.
- The Annexation of Hawaii (1898).
- In 1914, after the French scandal (involving corruption and bribes), the Americans occupied the Panama Canal Zone (the canal was completed a year later).