Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Military Uprising and the Path to War

The military uprising was supported by a heterogeneous group of conservative military personnel, most notably the Africanistas. The failure of the uprising, coupled with the government's response, led to a bloody civil war that lasted almost three years.

The Military Uprising of July 1936

According to General Emilio Mola, the head of the uprising, the military coup was to be carried out with extreme violence. The plan was to first declare a state of war and then proceed with the arrest and removal of major left-wing political and union leaders. The plan consisted of a series of uprisings that would seize power in their respective areas. After taking the capital, a general meeting would be held to replace...

Al-Andalus: Economy, Society, and Culture

In cities that developed thriving crafts, there was significant foreign trade, and the circulation of money was plentiful. The city of Córdoba was the economic hub and largest cultural center, and Al-Andalus became the largest city in Western Europe.

Ethnic Plurality and Cultural Splendor

The Muslim majority was divided into different ethnic groups, which were equal before the law but occupied different social positions.

• Privileged group: Jassa (those with Arab ancestry) who owned most of the domains.
• Berbers and Muladi (Hispanic converts to Islam).
• Jews.
• Mozarabs: They had a heavier tax burden and were Hispanic Christians.

This created an extensive network of schools and universities, and scientific development...

Tragic Week: Barcelona's 1909 Uprising

Background

Five years after the loss of its colonies in Cuba, Spain embarked on a new colonial campaign in Morocco. The war effort recruited young men of working age, many from already struggling families. On July 24, 1909, a revolutionary strike committee was formed, representing socialists, anarchists, and Lerrouxists. The lower classes were turning to violence against the Catalan language, Catalan bourgeoisie, and the Church, whom they blamed for the suffering of the workers.

The Uprising and its Suppression

What was intended to be a revolutionary strike turned into an urban uprising. That same night, the first religious buildings were set on fire. The bodies of religious figures were exhumed from their...

19th Century European Political Transformations

Revolutions of 1820 and 1830

During the Restoration period, liberals went underground, organizing into secret societies. The Masons were the largest of these groups. These organizations, comprising businessmen, students, intellectuals, and professionals, saw themselves as heirs to the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, advocating for revolt against absolutism. Their influence was primarily concentrated in cities, where they hoped the populace would join the uprising once initiated.

Initial triumphs in Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont ushered in a brief liberal period, which was subsequently suppressed by absolutist forces. The repression was severe: many liberals were arrested or executed,...

Decline of Spanish Empire in Europe

Foreign Policy: Philip III signed a peace treaty with England (1604) and the 12-year truce with Holland (1609-1621). With Philip IV, the peace was broken due to the German conflict. At the end of the 12-year truce, fighting resumed in the Hispanic Netherlands, with Austria and Spain against Protestant Germany and Holland. The Thirty Years' War ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which permanently ceded independence to the United Provinces. Spain fought against France until the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), which involved the transfer of Roussillon, Sardinia, and Artois. Under Charles II, the independence of Portugal was recognized. There was peace in Aachen (1668), the French invasion of the Low Countries...

Primo de Rivera's Manifesto: A Historical Analysis

The Primo Manifesto is a historical-political text drafted by General Miguel Primo de Rivera, published in the newspaper ABC. This monarchist text emerged in the early twentieth century, amidst strong political commotion caused by the Disaster of '98, which forced the dynastic parties to launch a reformist agenda.

Context and Background

While the political system was being reformed, Spanish society entered a progressive stage of economic development and social modernization. The impact of the First World War, especially its economic growth, along with dynastic divisions between the courts and governments, the exacerbation of social tensions, and the difficulties of warfare in Morocco, served as...

**Political Organization and Institutions in the Late Middle Ages**

**Kingdom of Castile**

The King enjoyed extensive powers. The Royal Chancery was a still-developing institution. Key features included the royal estate and the courts, which were called by the King to vote on subsidies. Municipalities had a mayor as the representative of royal power. The *merindades* (counties) were replaced by *adelantamientos*, headed by *Merinos mayores*. Clashes between nobles and monarchs were exacerbated during the reign of Pedro I "the Cruel," who was murdered in Montiel (1369) by his brother, Henry II of Trastámara. Henry II sought to strengthen royal power through centralizing initiatives: reducing the power of the courts, establishing the Hearing and...

Trench Warfare

Trench warfare describes combat based on defense by both contenders in fixed positions, consisting of lines of trenches dug into the ground for troops to parapet within them.

War Reparations

War reparations are compensation for damage caused by war. The defeated party must satisfy the victor under clauses in the peace treaties.

War Economy

A war economy is a set of restrictions and economic measures designed to meet the civil and military requirements of a country in wartime, so it can continue the struggle. Characteristic measures of a war economy are rationing and the use of women in the workforce.

Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh territorial, political, and economic conditions on Germany.

Battles of Verdun

Causes of the Costa Rican Civil War in 1948

• The difficult economic situation facing the country due to the closure of European markets to exports of coffee and bananas.
• Direct government intervention in electoral matters.
• Nepotism of the rulers, favoring relatives in key government positions.
• The sit-down strike.
• Annulment of the 1948 elections by Congress.

Impact of World War II on Costa Rica

Social Impact

Most of the population was employed. However, a large sector lived in poverty due to a lack of housing and low wages.

Economic Impact

The economy depended primarily on the production and export of coffee and bananas. Cocoa and mining were in decline, while urban centers developed commerce and industry, although the labor bill was less significant....

A Brief History of Asturias

16th-17th Century: The Arbitrators

In seventeenth-century Spain, a group of 16 ARBITRATOR thinkers emerged, proposing various policies and means to solve the problems of the Spanish economy.

18th Century: Audiencia de Asturias

After the War of Succession (1702-1713), the Audiencia de Asturias was established in 1719. This resulted in municipalities losing their autonomy, despite their aspirations to the throne and their defense of the new king, Philip V.

18th-19th Century: Illustrated Asturians

Notable figures who contributed to the central government include:

• Jose Campillo y Cossio (1693-1743): Published treatises on economics and public administration.
• Feijoo (1676-1764): Known for his criticism of traditional culture'