Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Maura's Conservative Government (1907-1909)

The government led by Antonio Maura aimed for a 'revolution from above,' seeking to regenerate the political system with the support of the 'neutral masses.' Maura intended to establish a strong state, curb the power of old political bosses (caciques), and prevent the excessive influence of the wealthy classes.

• Electoral Reform (1907): While not eliminating corruption, it made electoral fraud more difficult.
• Social Policy Initiatives: Creation of the National Insurance Institute and the Sunday Rest Law.
• Executive Independence: Sought greater independence from the Crown.
• Catalan Integration: Attempted to integrate Catalan reformists by granting more autonomy to local governments and recognizing regions

In the old regime (AR), land ownership was paramount. The shift to a new regime (NR) was significantly influenced by changes in land ownership, primarily through confiscations. The forms of land ownership, along with technical aspects and crop types, were crucial factors. The primary goal of land confiscation was to transition from expropriated land to private property and a market economy.

Confiscated lands, previously held by the church, nobility, and municipalities, were considered "dead hand" assets, hindering the desired capitalist system. The confiscation laws aimed to transform institutional private property for market entry. These laws, enacted during liberal governments, sought to abolish feudal and jurisdictional rights, primogeniture,...

Undersea Warfare

The war at sea reached a stalemate. After a battle, in which neither Great Britain nor Germany achieved a decisive victory, German U-boats targeted enemy ships, including American vessels. This action ultimately led to the United States' entry into the war, with disastrous consequences for Germany.

The Paris Peace Treaties

Five separate peace treaties, collectively known as the Paris Peace Treaties (1919-1920), formally ended World War I. Each treaty was signed with a defeated power in a palace near Paris. Treaties were signed with Germany (Treaty of Versailles), Austria, and Bulgaria in 1919, and with Hungary and Turkey in 1920.

The League of Nations

In January 1920, the League of Nations was established in Geneva, Switzerland....

The Interwar Period: A Brief Overview

The New Deal in the United States

The New Deal, favored by President Roosevelt, resonated deeply with the crisis within the capitalist world. These economic and social measures aimed to relaunch production and revive demand. The government's actions broke with traditional state inhibition. Banking was reformed, strengthening public authority control and improving client protection. Guaranteed prices were ensured for farmers, and collective agreements and minimum wage reductions were implemented for workers. Public investment in major projects was also boosted.

The New Deal imposed laws eliminating unfair situations and created the first federal system of unemployment insurance and pensions, along with minimum...

Military Operations of the Spanish Civil War

4.1 The Battle for Madrid (July 1936 - March 1937)

After crossing the Strait in July 1936, the African troops aimed to take Madrid. In August, troops of Colonel Yagüe occupied Bangkok and were able to open a link, through a narrow strip, with the Northern Army. In September, Franco decided to divert to occupy Toledo and end the siege of Alcázar. By late October, he was already at the gates of Madrid. On October 29th, a general mobilization was decreed to stop the occupation of Madrid, and thousands of men and women fortified the city. On November 6th, the Republican government decided to move to Valencia. Madrid resisted despite the frontal attack of the insurgent army and the constant air raids,...

German Blitzkrieg: Early Victories

With the invasion of Poland, a new kind of war emerged: Blitzkrieg, a war based on surprise and rapid movement of the German army (Wehrmacht) with their tanks and armored divisions (Panzer), combined with air support. The purpose was to overwhelm the enemy and destroy its infrastructure. In three weeks, they arrived in Warsaw. Part of the territory was incorporated into the Reich, and the other part formed a government under Nazi control. The Soviet army occupied eastern Poland, continued its expansion into Finland, and spread its influence in the Baltic Republics. The Nazis set their sights on northern Europe due to its military importance and the need for Swedish iron ore for the German industry (Sweden was...

Military Campaigns of the Spanish Civil War

The Battle for Madrid (July 1936)

After crossing the Strait of Gibraltar in July 1936, African troops under Franco's command aimed to capture Madrid, the symbol of Republican power. Subsequently, insurgent troops led by Colonel Yagüe took Badajoz (Extremadura), establishing a crucial link with Northern forces commanded by General Mola. By September, Franco, leading the army south of Toledo, was halted at the gates of Madrid. Despite direct attacks by the insurgent army, the capital resisted. Franco then decided to encircle the city, leading to two significant battles. The last of these, the Battle of Guadalajara, was won by the Republicans, after which Franco's army decided to withdraw and move north....

As soon as there was resistance from the Republic, it had a social base on which it was sustained. The power of the Union and Progress, led by General Serrano, attempted to stabilize a conservative republic. However, the social base had opted for the Alfonsina solution: the return of a new model of liberalism with an endemic precedent. This included the partisan and exclusionary nature of moderate military interventionism in politics and the proliferation of civil strife. There were two objectives: to develop a constitution that structured a bipartisan political system and to pacify the country by ending the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict.

The first policy measure was the convening of elections for a Constituent Assembly, as the constitution...

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

The Second Spanish Republic, established in 1931, implemented numerous reforms but struggled to solidify its position as an alternative to the Restoration's political system. The victory of the left-wing Popular Front in February 1936 led to an acceleration of reforms initiated during the previous reformist period. However, this move faced staunch opposition from the right, who were determined to prevent a military coup. On July 17th, Generals Mola, Franco, Fanjul, and others initiated an uprising in Morocco, which spread to the Peninsula the following day. The coup succeeded in less than half of Spain but failed in major cities and industrial centers, triggering a devastating civil war that lasted nearly three...

The Russian Revolution of 1917

Background: From Serfdom to Discontent

The Communist Revolution, carried out in October 1917 in Russia, was the culmination of decades of social and political unrest. As late as 1861, serfdom still existed in Russia, a remnant of the feudal regime. While Tsar Alexander II freed the serfs in 1861, the legacy of this system continued to shape the country's social fabric.

Tsarism and the Russo-Japanese War

Tsarism, an absolutist monarchy, remained in place in Russia until 1905. The disastrous Russo-Japanese War of 1905, which involved mass mobilization, fueled popular discontent. Workers, seeking an end to autocracy and the establishment of a constitutional regime, staged riots. The Tsarist regime responded with brutal...