Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Spanish Constitution of 1931

The 1931 Constitution established a separation of powers, although priority was given to Parliament. Parliament had the power to control the government's actions, and even consisted of the President of the Republic. In contrast, the President had very limited powers. Finally, the Constitutional Court was established to ensure the legality of laws enacted by the government.

Another important aspect was the Church-State separation. Key features included:

• The definition of Spain as an integral state compatible with the autonomy of municipalities.
• Castilian as the official language.
• Finally, abandoning war in its external relations.

The most controversial aspect was its anti-clerical stance. Freedom of worship, the abolition...

The Fall of Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship

Despite attempts to establish a new regime, Primo de Rivera faced widespread criticism, opposition demonstrations, and even military pronouncements. In a state of political isolation and after losing the support of Alfonso XIII, Primo de Rivera resigned on January 28, 1930. Alfonso XIII attempted to restore the old system of alternating governments (with Berenguer and Aznar), but after the municipal elections of April 12, 1931, the Second Spanish Republic was established.

The Rise of the PSOE

International Workers' Association and Early Influences

The International Workers' Association (IWA), founded in London in 1864, initially encompassed both Marxist and anarchist ideologies. However, after continuous...

Colonial War and the Crisis of 1898

After the reign of Alfonso XII (1874-1885), the regency of Maria Cristina of Habsburg (1885-1902) occurred, pending the coming of age of the young child, the future Alfonso XIII, who reigned from 1902 to 1931. There is a historical fact of the late nineteenth century, the "disaster of 98." Since the late fifteenth century, Spain forged a great colonial empire that crumbled during the first decades of the nineteenth century. Only Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and some Pacific islands remained Spanish.

Colonial War

The attempt of Cuba to gain independence began during the stage of the democratic Sexenio in 1869. Céspedes proclaimed the Cuban republic, and the dispute arose. The Spanish army had to intervene...

Colonial War and Crisis of 1898: The War of Cuba

The war in Cuba is at the heart of the actions of Canovas' Conservative government, until his assassination at the hands of the Italian anarchist Angiolillo. When the new Cuban insurrection began, Spain found itself isolated due to the political alliances designed by German Chancellor Bismarck. Because of this lack of international support, the Alfonsino regime could barely sustain the confrontation, first indirect and later direct, with the United States.

Independence Movement

The second war was inspired by Cuban independence advocate Jose Marti. The movement's social base was composed of the peasantry, the native bourgeoisie, and the popular classes. The Cuban Revolutionary Party boosted the independence...

Political Consequences of World War I

Policies

• The traditional dynasties (Habsburg, Romanov) were dethroned.
• Democracy gained ground.
• Universal male suffrage was introduced in most of Europe, and some countries recognized women's suffrage.

Territorial Changes

• Dissolution of the great empires.
• Emergence of new countries: Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Yugoslavia (Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, and Montenegro), Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic and Slovakia), and Hungary.

The Rise and Crisis of Democracy

The peace treaties that ended World War I led to the emergence of new states in Europe. Most of them introduced parliamentary governments. At the same time, ideological currents questioning democracy were born. Groups of veterans,...

Victorian Era

The Victorian era, coinciding with the reign of Queen Victoria I, marked the peak of the UK's territorial expansion and financial consolidation. This period solidified democratic practices in the UK.

Bipartisanship

The British parliamentary model is characterized by its marked bipartisanship, with power alternating between two main parties: the Conservatives, led by figures like Disraeli, and the Whigs or Liberals, with Gladstone as a prominent leader.

Bicameralism

The British parliamentary model introduced bicameralism, dividing Parliament into two representative chambers: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Members of the Commons are elected and hold legislative power. The Lords comprises members of the nobility and individuals...

The Spanish Inquisition and its Impact on Society

The Court of the Inquisition was created in the 18th century, established by papal authority to eliminate witchcraft and superstition. It was introduced in Europe and the Crown of Aragon. The Catholic Monarchs reinforced it when it began to weaken, making it an instrument of ideological control and religious unity.

They took the decision to expel the Jews who did not accept conversion to Catholicism. Jews could not participate in public life and were forced to live only among themselves in Jewish neighborhoods. This affected about 150,000 people in Castile and 30,000 in Aragon. Their properties were confiscated, and many agreed to be baptized to avoid expulsion.

The Catholic Monarchs also wanted...

Referees

Thinkers analyzing the 17th-century crisis proposed a series of measures to solve it by sending petitions to the king to take action. They accused the monarch not as the head, but blamed the weight of foreign trade, foreign competition, expenditure on luxuries, and excessive investment in censuses and rents.

Quartermasters

Officials responsible for administering real property, justice, politics, and the armed forces in the provinces. They were introduced during the War of Succession. The general intendancies were similar to the current provinces.

Workmanship

Workshops, the larger craft, in which some specialization and division of labor were given. This pre-industrial production system had emerged in the late Middle Ages. In Spain, the...

Nazari Art and Architecture

The Alhambra Palace

Nazari architecture is characterized by external sobriety contrasting with profusely decorated interiors. Simple materials were used, and a distinctive column style emerged. This new column featured a thin, cylindrical shaft with numerous bases and a capital adorned with wavy bands and intricate stalactite or vegetal decoration.

Arches and Decoration

The most common arch types are pointed and stalactite, with the latter being the most characteristic. Decoration is diverse, including geometric interlacing patterns (loop decoration), vegetal motifs, and epigraphy. Plasterwork typically covers the upper walls, complemented by glazed earthenware or tile baseboards, creating a horror vacui effect.

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