Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

World War II (1939-1945)

1. Causes of World War II

1.1 Expansionist Policies of Nazi Germany

Following Hitler's rise to power, Germany left the League of Nations in 1933, signaling its rejection of the international order. This mirrored Japan's actions after its 1931 attack on China, which drew condemnation from the League. Italy followed suit in 1935 after being censured for its invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Nazi Germany aimed to establish a vast Reich, imposing its vision of Lebensraum (living space) on Europe. In early 1935, Germany annexed the Saarland following a plebiscite. It promoted rearmament, established compulsory military service, created an air force, and remilitarized the Rhineland in March 1936, all in violation of the Treaty...

**The October Revolution of 1917**

The Days of October

Kerensky sought to carry out the conversion of the Tsarist state into a parliamentary republic. For that purpose, a meeting of the board called the Republic was held to take over the situation until the opening of a new assembly. Trotsky became the center of opposition to the Republican regime. On October 25th, the sea rose following Lenin's call. Soon, groups of armed workers joined and managed to take key locations.

The Construction of the Soviet State

The revolution was finally consummated by the rapid action of the armed masses and the support of the Soviets, Bolsheviks, and Mensheviks. Lenin then became the undisputed leader, although within the Bolshevik Party, problems persisted on the...

War of Spanish Succession and Treaty of Utrecht

In 1700, Charles II died childless and named Philip D'Anjou as his successor. However, Philip was also a direct heir to the French throne, which violated the principle of the balance of power established by the *Peace of Westphalia* in 1648. Consequently, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal, Savoy, and the Kingdom of Aragon supported Archduke Charles of Austria. Their reasoning was that his succession would not disrupt the balance of power, especially since the primary contender, Joseph I, was already the Holy Roman Emperor.

The war erupted in November when Philip D'Anjou ascended the Spanish throne, signaling France's political dominance. Years later, Joseph I, Emperor of Austria, died...

Capitalist Bloc

The United States pursued economic and political hegemony in the West. Its leadership was based on economic and military power, cultural dominance, and the political values of liberal democracy. The bloc based its system on these values, although some countries supported dictatorial regimes to prevent Communist influence. Governments were anti-communist.

US Intervention

President Truman initiated a policy of American intervention to contain communism in Europe, known as the Truman Doctrine. U.S. soldiers and bases increased in Greece and Turkey. In the 1950s, Senator McCarthy began a crackdown against suspected communist sympathizers, known as the "witch hunt," generating a climate of suspicion. Under Eisenhower's presidency, conservatism...

Friedrich Nietzsche: Early Life and Influences

Friedrich Nietzsche, born in 1844 into a family of Lutheran tradition, received a strong foundation in humanistic education and biblical knowledge. He attended Schulpforta until 1864, when he began his studies in Bonn. Nietzsche delved into classical philosophy, including the works of Schopenhauer and other significant thinkers. Later, deeply affected by Lou von Salomé's rejection, he was cared for by his mother and sister.

The 19th Century: Historical Context

The 19th century in Europe was marked by a profound sense of nationalism, largely provoked by the Napoleonic invasions and the rise of liberal movements. The "national question" became particularly pressing in Italy and Germany, with each nation...

Evolution of the Cold War (1947-1991)

Major Sources of Conflict

The Cold War, spanning from 1947 to 1991, marked a period of intense rivalry between the former WWII allies. This era witnessed significant shifts in international relations, shaping distinct phases of the conflict.

Stages of the Cold War

• Initial Phase (1948-1953): Characterized by maximum tension and rivalry between the two blocs.
• Intermediate Phase (1953-1975): Known as the era of "peaceful coexistence."
• Final Phase (1975-1991): Concluded with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emergence of a new world order.

The Warsaw Pact lagged behind NATO in terms of military strength and technology. Many Warsaw Pact weapons were outdated and difficult to use, while NATO possessed superior...

Canova's Restoration: Oligarchy and Despotism

Political Events (1875-1898)

In 1874, an uprising led by Martinez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII King of Spain. The then prime minister was overruled by his officers and exiled. The day after the coup, Canovas del Castillo took over as president. He had the support of Alfonso XII, as he had written the manifesto that outlined the principles of the Sandhurst Restoration. With the entry of Alfonso XII, the Bourbon dynasty was restored in Spain.

End of the Carlist Wars

The first action Cánovas took as king was dealing with the Carlist War. While heading the king offered a broad amnesty to forget the past and adhere to the constitutional monarchy.

• Ramón Cabrera (former Carlist) accepted the amnesty and

The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship (1923-1930)

The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship began with a coup d'état in 1923, following Mussolini's accession to power in Italy. While influenced by the political climate, Primo de Rivera's dictatorship was not fascist; it emerged from the Regenerationist movement, aiming to combat the perceived ills of the Restoration era.

Support and Opposition

Initially, Primo de Rivera was well received by many segments of society. However, opposition soon emerged among students and intellectuals. Primo de Rivera also faced significant resistance from peripheral nationalisms (such as Catalan and Basque nationalism) and became increasingly repressive against their manifestations. The CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo)...

Foundations of Modern Naval Power (1900–1941)

William Sims: The Gunnery Reformer

William Sims was a transformative figure in the U.S. Navy at the turn of the 20th century, challenging ingrained traditions and advocating for a more professional and technologically advanced force. His key contribution was his relentless push for improved gunnery practices, particularly the adoption of continuous aim firing. Prior to Sims, American naval gunnery was notoriously inaccurate, relying on slow, deliberate shots. Sims, through persistent correspondence and demonstrations, convinced the Navy leadership that faster, more accurate fire was achievable and essential. This reform dramatically increased the combat effectiveness of U.S. warships, as demonstrated...

Subjectivity, Objectivity, and Bias in History

• Objectivity

  • The goal of history.
  • But historians say that objectivity is not possible as history is based on interpretation, and hence subjectivity is bound to come.

• Bias

  • Something that is done deliberately.
  • For propaganda.
  • Vested interest, to prove something.
  • This is known as pattern writing.

• Why Subjectivity Enters Historical Writing

  • Social Animal

    • Everyone goes through the process of social interactions.
    • The personality that evolves through social interaction also lies within the historian.

  • Ideology

    • Ideas people incorporate with them.

  • Area of Research

    • When a historian chooses their area for investigation, the moment they choose it out of their own inherent interest, subjectivity obviously enters.

  • Religion

    • For example,