19th Century Europe: Revolutions, Unification & Liberalism

19th Century European Political Transformations

Revolutions of 1820 and 1830

During the Restoration period, liberals went underground, organizing into secret societies. The Masons were the largest of these groups. These organizations, comprising businessmen, students, intellectuals, and professionals, saw themselves as heirs to the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, advocating for revolt against absolutism. Their influence was primarily concentrated in cities, where they hoped the populace would join the uprising once initiated.

Initial triumphs in Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont ushered in a brief liberal period, which was subsequently suppressed by absolutist forces. The repression was severe: many liberals were arrested or executed, while others were forced into exile.

By the late 1830s, absolutism was receding in Western Europe, replaced by a moderate liberalism that drew its reference from the French Constitution of 1791. This transition consolidated the dominance of the upper bourgeoisie and the landowning aristocracy, who retained their economic power in exchange for relinquishing their feudal privileges. Consequently, moderate liberals advocated for censitary suffrage (property-based voting) and limited the exercise of freedoms.

The Social Democratic Experience: 1848

The year 1848 marked the end of the Restoration system. In Eastern Europe, it led to the abolition of feudalism. In Western Europe, it opened the way for new democratic ideals, championing popular sovereignty and universal male suffrage.

The revolution commenced in Paris when the government of Louis Philippe restricted freedoms. The insurrection culminated in the assault on the Royal Palace, the king's flight, and the proclamation of the Republic. A provisional government was formed, initiating a program of political and social reforms. Elections held under universal male suffrage resulted in a new government of moderate Republicans.

In December, the ascent of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (later Napoleon III) to power, which culminated in the proclamation of the Second Empire in 1851, was a response to these changing dynamics. The impact of the Parisian revolution was immediate, spreading throughout Europe. Ultimately, 1848 completed the bourgeois revolution and marked the beginning of the prominence of popular social forces, signaling an evolution towards liberal democracy.

Unification of Italy

In 1815, Italy was fragmented into states of varying sizes and significance, with some regions under Austrian dominion. In 1830, a movement of national affirmation, known as the Risorgimento, emerged. Its initial political discourse on unification strategy was championed by Giuseppe Mazzini and his organization, Young Italy. They proposed the creation of a unitary, democratic, and secular republic.

The failure of the revolutionary attempts in 1848-1849 resulted in continued Austrian domination, political fragmentation, and absolutist regimes. Only in Piedmont, under the Savoy monarchy, was constitutional rule consolidated. Its Prime Minister, Count Cavour, spearheaded a moderate strategy for unification.

The unification drive concluded with the annexation of the Veneto after defeating the Austrians, and the conquest of the Papal States, despite opposition from the Pope, who was subsequently confined to the Vatican State.

Unification of Germany

The cultural components of German nationalism were articulated by philosophers such as Herder and Fichte, and were further reinforced by Romanticism. This initiated a process leading to the formation of the German nation-state.

The Congress of Vienna (1815) had established the Germanic Confederation, which united 39 states, including two major powers (Prussia and Austria). The first significant step towards unification was the creation of the Zollverein (Customs Union) in 1834, which established a free-trade area encompassing 26 million people.

Democratic liberals gained influence, notably in the Frankfurt Parliament. However, the unification process, largely driven by Prussia, ultimately concluded with the proclamation of the Second Reich and William I as Emperor in 1871.

Liberalism: An Ideological Foundation

Liberalism encompasses the set of ideological and political transformations that occurred in Europe and America between the late 18th century and the end of the Napoleonic Empire. It constitutes an ideological, political, and economic doctrine. A core tenet of liberalism is that society is composed of individuals, not estates or orders.

Key Features of Liberalism:

• In Society:
  • Legal equality for all citizens.
  • Abolition of privileges.
  • Emphasis on individual freedoms.
• Regarding Political Power:
  • Opposition to absolutism.
  • Advocacy for national sovereignty.
  • Support for the separation of powers.
  • Establishment of representative institutions, public administration, and justice systems.