Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Secondary education

A General Look at Europe

Europe is a relatively small continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere. It is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains and from Africa by the Strait of Gibraltar. Notably, it is the continent with the lowest average altitude, at 290 meters.

Eastern Europe

Eastern Europe extends from the Carpathian Mountains to the Ural Mountains (west to east). Its northern border is defined by the Arctic Ocean and the Baltic Sea, while its southern border includes the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains (home to Europe's highest peak, Mount Elbrus, at 5,633m), and the Black Sea. This region is part of the vast Great European Plain, which stretches from Belgium to the Urals.

Major Rivers and Lakes

The rivers in Eastern Europe...

Feudalism: The Foundation of Medieval Europe

Feudalism emerged as the dominant system of social, political, and economic organization in Medieval Europe.

Political System

The political landscape was shaped by the disintegration of the Roman Empire and the decline of public law following the invasions. Large landowners assumed functions previously reserved for the state, such as coinage, tax collection, justice, and defense. After the invasions, new kingdoms organized according to the feudal scheme, forming patrimonial monarchies where the king was considered primus inter pares (first among equals). Within each territory, powerful lords exercised strict control over public administration.

Social System

Feudal law, characterized by concepts of entrustment,...

The Crown of Aragón

Institution

The Crown of Aragón was made up of the Catalan counties and the kingdoms of Aragón, Valencia, and Mallorca. Each territory maintained its own laws, institutions, and customs. The king had less power than in Castile. Each territory had its own parliament, and the king needed its approval to raise taxes or pass laws. In Catalonia and Valencia, a Generalitat had an administrative role. An official called the Justícia defended people's rights in Aragón. City councils developed considerable autonomy in the Crown of Aragón. The city council of Barcelona was especially important.

Expansion Across the Mediterranean

Aragón expanded on the Iberian Peninsula, although less than Castile.

• Alfonso I conquered the Ebro Valley.

European Nations: Capitals and Languages

• 1. Montenegro: Podgorica, Montenegrin
• 2. Albania: Tirana, Albanian
• 3. North Macedonia: Skopje, Macedonian
• 4. Greece: Athens, Greek
• 5. Bulgaria: Sofia, Bulgarian
• 6. Serbia: Belgrade, Serbian
• 7. Bosnia and Herzegovina: Sarajevo, Bosnian
• 8. Croatia: Zagreb, Croatian
• 9. Slovenia: Ljubljana, Slovene
• 10. Austria: Vienna, German
• 11. Hungary: Budapest, Hungarian
• 12. Romania: Bucharest, Romanian
• 13. Moldova: Chisinau, Moldovan
• 14. Ukraine: Kyiv, Ukrainian
• 15. Slovakia: Bratislava, Slovak
• 16. Czech Republic: Prague, Czech
• 17. Poland: Warsaw, Polish
• 18. Belarus: Minsk, Belarusian
• 19. Lithuania: Vilnius, Lithuanian
• 20. Latvia: Riga, Latvian
• 21. Russia: Moscow, Russian
• 22. Estonia: Tallinn, Estonian
• 23. Finland: Helsinki, Finnish
• 24. Sweden:

Afghanistan: Kabul / Armenia: Yerevan / Azerbaijan: Baku / Bahrain: Manama / Bangladesh: Dhaka / Bhutan: Thimphu / Brunei: Bandar Seri Begawan / Cambodia: Phnom Penh / China: Beijing / Cyprus: Nicosia / Georgia: Tbilisi / India: New Delhi / Indonesia: Jakarta / Iran: Tehran / Iraq: Baghdad / Israel: Jerusalem / Japan: Tokyo / Jordan: Amman / Kazakhstan: Nur-Sultan / Kuwait: Kuwait City / Kyrgyzstan: Bishkek / Laos: Vientiane / Lebanon: Beirut / Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur / Maldives: Male / Mongolia: Ulaanbaatar / Myanmar: Naypyidaw / Nepal: Kathmandu / North Korea: Pyongyang / Oman: Muscat / Pakistan: Islamabad / Palestine: Jerusalem (East) / Philippines: Manila / Qatar: Doha / Russia: Moscow / Saudi Arabia: Riyadh / Singapore: Singapore / South

World Population

The total number of people living on earth. This figure reached 7 billion in 2012.

Population History

1. Increased slowly before 18^th century. Black death interrupted it.
2. 18^th - 19^th century: contemporary age. Population grew in Europe and North America, improved agriculture.
3. 20^th century: contemporary age.
4. Now.
5. Future.

Population Density

Total population/area km. Average population density: 50 inhabitants per km².

Population Distribution

Uneven due to physical and human factors.

• Physical: Some types of natural environment usually have high population. Favourable conditions include abundant water, a temperate climate, low fertile land, and mineral resources. On the other hand, regions with little water or extreme temperatures are less densely

Types of Services

Business Services: Market research, business banking services.

People Services: Health, education, culture.

Tertiary Causes of Growth

• The mechanization of production processes of primary and secondary sectors, which use little labor.
• The necessity of services in all phases of the production process: design, studies, market, distribution.
• Increasing the standard of living of the population, which causes more consumption of services.
• The state, in some countries, has as a priority to offer the whole of the citizenry a series of services that guarantee their well-being.
• The importance that research on information and communication have achieved in today's world.

Social Services: Fundamental activities are to ensure the welfare of people....

2 Core Elements of industrial activitie (I). Raw materials

2.1. Industrial raw materials

According To their origin they can be classified as plant animal or geological matter.

-Plant sourced Raw materias; They are obtained from agriculture and silviculture.

-Animal Sourced raw materials; They are provide by livestock farming also from the Fishing industrie.

-Geological Raw materials; they are extracted from the Earth´s crust, Minerals from which Metals can be obtained and non-metalic materials, minerals represent the Largest quantity and variety of industrial raw materials. Rocks suchs as Granite, which are used directly or for manufacturing construction materials. Energy products, such as coal, crude oil, natural gas and uranium from which Energy