Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Secondary education

England's Industrial Revolution

The Rise of Capitalism

England's industrial and manufacturing revolution facilitated the consolidation of capitalism, creating two primary classes: the bourgeoisie (owners of capital) and the proletariat (workers who sold their labor for wages). Capitalism's origins trace back to the late Middle Ages (14th and 15th centuries) with increased trade and private property. However, its consolidation occurred in the 19th century as European powers sought new markets, eliminating local regulations and protective legislation. This included granting credits and trade advantages, often through diplomacy or war.

The Impact of Railways

The railway boom ignited the English economy. Unlike the textile industry, which required...

Key Urban Terms

Urban area — a built-up area such as a town or city.
Urbanisation — an increasing proportion of people living in urban areas.
Urban growth — an increase in the number of people living in a city.
Migration — the movement of people from one place to another.
Natural increase — when birth rates are higher than death rates.
Megacity — a city with a population of more than 10 million.
World city — a city with major global influence over finance, business, politics and culture.

Patterns of Urban Movement

Suburbanisation

Definition: People move from the inner city to the suburbs.
Causes: More space, gardens, quieter surroundings and better access to family housing.
Consequences: Suburbs expand, commuting increases and inner-city...

Physical Factors Affecting Agriculture

The physical environment plays a crucial role in agricultural viability. The primary physical factors include:

• Terrain and Relief: Mountains present challenges due to altitude, temperature variations, and rainfall. Slope orientation is critical: sun-oriented slopes are warmer, while windward slopes (oriented to prevailing winds) are wetter than leeward slopes. Steep slopes can cause soil erosion and hinder mechanization. Conversely, fertile plains and valley bottoms provide the most favorable relief for agricultural activities.
• Climate: Climate influences plant development through insolation, temperature, precipitation, and wind. Extreme sunshine, temperature, and rainfall can make agriculture impossible.

The Primary Sector: Core Activities

The primary sector comprises activities focused on obtaining food and raw materials directly from nature. This includes:

• Agriculture: Cultivation of crops.
• Livestock: Rearing of animals.
• Fishing: Harvesting aquatic life.
• Forestry: Management of forests for timber and other products. This sector currently accounts for approximately 39% of forestry activities.

Farming Activities and Influencing Factors

Farming activities hold a very important place for the population and are conditioned by several key factors:

• Weather

  Each crop requires specific climatic conditions, including temperature and humidity, for optimal development.

• Relief

  Agriculture is typically easier in wide plains. Slopes make work more difficult and often

More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs)

(Australia, France...)

• High life expectancy
• Exporting of manufactured goods
• Compulsory secondary education
• Low birth rate
• High status for women
• High employment in the tertiary sector
• High number of older people

Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs)

(India...)

• Poor healthcare
• Exporting of mainly primary products
• High infant mortality rate
• Low life expectancy
• Low literacy rates
• High employment rate in the primary sector
• High proportion of young people
• Limited access to clean water

Globalization: Different Aspects

Politics

• Global problems: Financial crises, climate change, terrorism
• Global actors: European Union, G-20, United Nations, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Economy

• Decrease in the cost of transporting

The Rise of Cities and the Bourgeoisie

The emergence of the bourgeoisie and the growth of cities profoundly transformed feudal society. Noble kings and ecclesiastical authorities granted personal freedom to city inhabitants, along with rights such as holding markets. This allowed for the formation of a new, non-privileged social group.

Defining the Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie comprised artisanal people dedicated to work and trade, who depended on no feudal lord.

City Governance and Civic Elite

Cities formed assemblies of all their neighbors to organize their governments. They elected judges who protected finances, maintained order, and administered justice, all directed by a mayor. Ultimately, city government often fell into the hands of the richest...

The Age of Revolutions: The Bourgeois Revolutions

The reforms made in the eighteenth century under the influence of the Enlightenment did not solve the problems of the Old Regime. Consequently, the end of this system was brought about by revolution, understood as a rapid and profound change relative to the previous situation. Thus, in the late eighteenth century, revolutions took place in the political, economic, social, scientific, and artistic spheres. These are collectively known as bourgeois revolutions, and they marked the transition from the Modern World to the world of the Old Regime. The name is used not because they were staged solely by the bourgeoisie—as other social groups participated—but because the bourgeoisie was the primary...

Reign of the Catholic Monarchs: Society & Economy

Political and Social Organization

The basic economic activities were agriculture and livestock.

Castile's Livestock-Based Economy

During the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, the Castilian economy continued to be mainly oriented towards sheep livestock. Castilian wool remained the main export through the ports of Biscay. The monarchy favored protecting farmers' interests, passing laws that protected the powerful Mesta, which brought together Castilian livestock farmers. The consequence was a brake on the expansion of agriculture, which hampered population growth. After the colonization of America, gold and silver arrived, and increased trade relations stimulated economic prosperity.

Crown of Aragon'

Economy and Society in 16th Century Spain

The arrival of silver and gold

In the 16th century, there was a huge demand for land due to new growth in America, alongside a large and significant trade arrival of gold and silver from American mines. Although this could have improved the economic and social conditions of the population, it did not. The influx of large quantities of precious metals provoked a price revolution, which increased prices and diminished the purchasing power of the popular classes, ultimately reducing their level of life.

The Spanish Economy

The demand for agricultural products could hardly be met with the production of the Spanish realms. Although some peasants went into debt to acquire new lands, these remained in the hands...

Economic Activities and Resource Exploitation

Agriculture and Livestock

In subsistence agriculture, the cultivation of food crops such as peanuts, coffee, and sorghum dominates. Some products are intended as feedstock for textile manufacturing. Combined livestock, including cattle, goats, and sheep, is currently in decline. Logging was very important in the twentieth century but is also in decline today.

Cash crops provide little benefit to the local population, as most gains are controlled by owners of foreign capital. Main mineral resources include diamonds, cobalt, copper, iron, and gold. These are primarily exploited by foreign companies.

Environmental and Social Challenges

Desertification and Water Scarcity

The advance of desertification has...